*Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Question 1

What is instinct theory?

Answer 1

An instinct is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely to be rooted in genes and the body.

Other species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions. Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals. We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection.

Question 2

What is the hierarchy of needs/motives?

Answer 2

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition.

**Physiological needs > Safety needs > Belongingness and love needs > Esteem needs > Self-actualization needs > Self-transcendence needs

Question 3

What is arousal theory?

Answer 3

States that human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, rather than to eliminate arousal. Example: Young monkeys and children are driven by curiosity to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive (like hunger or thirst).

Question 4

What is drive-reduction theory?

Answer 4

• A need is a physiological state that usually triggers (pushes) a state of motivational arousal
• A drive is an aroused/tension state (such as hunger or thirst) triggered by a physical need.
• Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. For example, we have a need for food, so we eat (drive-reducing behavior) to reduce the feeling (drive) of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state.

Question 5

Analyze hunger motivation on a biopsychosocial level.

Answer 5

Biological:

• mid-hypothalamic centers in the brain monitoring appetite
• appetite hormones
• stomach pangs
• set/settling point weight
• universal attraction to sweet and salty
• adaptive wariness toward novel foods

Psychological:

• sight and smell of a variety of tasty foods
• memory of time elapsed since last meal
• mood

Social:

• culturally learned taste preferences
• learned restraint in cultures idealizing thinness

Question 6

Analyze sex motivation on a biopsychosocial level.

Answer 6

Biological:

• sexual maturity
• sex hormones, especially testosterone
• sexual orientation

Psychological:

• exposure to stimulating conditions
• sexual fantasies

Social:

• family and society values
• religious and personal values
• cultural expectations

Question 7

What is grit?

Answer 7

Grit refers to a combination of desire for achievement and the ability/willingness to persist at hard work.

Question 8

What is the voice effect?

Answer 8

Voice effect: If given a chance to voice their opinion during a decision-making process, people will respond more positively to the decision.

Question 9

What is the James-Lange Theory?

Answer 9

William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. The James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.

Question 10

What is the Cannon-Bard Theory?

Answer 10

Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned the James-Lange Theory and proposed that following an emotion-triggering stimulus, the body simultaneously experiences physiological arousal and emotion. In other words, human body responses run parallel to the cognitive responses rather than causing them.

Question 11

What is the Two-Factor Theory?

Answer 11

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggests that our physiology and cognitions create emotions. Thus, their theory proposes that emotions have two factors– physical arousal and a cognitive label.

Question 12

What is the spillover effect?

Answer 12

Spillover effect: occurs when arousal from one event affects (spills over from) our response to other events.

Question 13

Explain the two pathways for emotion.

Answer 13

Zajonc and LeDoux: Emotion before cognition (The Speedy Low Road): Sensory input travels directly through the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction. This is the brain’s shortcut for more simple emotions, such as likes, dislikes, and fears.

Lazarus: Cognition before emotion (The Thinking High Road): Sensory input travels to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis (appraisal) of more complex emotions, such as guilt, happiness, and love, before continuing through the amygdala.

Question 14

What did Paul Ekman say about facial expression?

Answer 14

Facial expressions are culturally universal

Question 15

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

Answer 15

Facial expressions can help regulate out emotions.

Question 16

What are Carol Izard’s 10 emotions?

Answer 16

Joy, Surprise, Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Contempt, Shame, Fear, Guilt, Interest Excitement

Question 17

What are the three categories of external stressors?

Answer 17

Catastrophes, Significant Life Changes, Everyday Inconveniences

Question 18

What is the feel good, do good phenomenon?

Answer 18

When you are happy, you are more likely to help others.

Question 19

Is fear learned?

Answer 19

Yes. Fear is learned through conditioning or observation.

Question 20

Can money buy happiness?

Answer 20

Research shows that money can buy happiness, but only when lifting a person out of poverty. Otherwise, it has no effect.

Question 21

What is the adaption-level phenomenon?

Answer 21

When our wealth or our life conditions improve, we gain temporary happiness. However, as we adapt and this improved life becomes our “new normal”, we must continue to improve our condition, in order to feel that same level of satisfaction.

Question 22

What is relative deprivation?

Answer 22

It’s the idea that we are worse off than the people we compare ourselves with.

Question 23

What is appraisal?

Answer 23

Appraisal refers to deciding whether something should be viewed as a stressor.

Question 24

What is Hans Seyle’s general adaption syndrome?

Answer 24

He discovered that the body’s adaptive response to stress was so general (like a single burglar alarm that sounds no matter who intrudes), he called it the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). Our stress response system defends, then fatigues.

Stressors > Appraisal > Thoughts > Feelings > Brain Signals > Hormonal Action > Immune Suppression > Risk of Illness

Question 25

What are the 3 stages of GAS?

Answer 25

Alarm Reaction: our body mobilizes its’ resources through our dual-track stress response system (i.e. fight-or-flight response)

Resistance: our bodies then fight the challenge in order to cope with the stressor (i.e. temperature, blood pressure, and breathing remain high, and we have an outpouring of stress hormones)

Exhaustion: if stress is persistent, it will deplete our body’s reserves to the point of exhaustion (i.e. illness, collapse, or even death)

Question 26

Are Type A people or Type B people more likely to develop coronary heart disease?

Answer 26

Type A

Question 27

What is hypertension?

Answer 27

Hypertension is also known as high blood pressure and it increases the risk of strokes, heart attacks, or heart failure.

Question 28

What is cortisol?

Answer 28

It’s a hormone that helps us respond to stress.

Question 29

What is biofeedback?

Answer 29

Biofeedback: a system of electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information about people’s subtle physiological response (i.e. blood pressure or muscle tension), which gives them the chance to bring their response to a healthier range.

Question 30

What was Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

Answer 30

Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms.

The unconscious mind, which contains thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories of which we are largely unaware, lies mostly hidden, below the surface of the water. The preconscious mind temporarily stores some of these thoughts, while our conscious mind is like an iceberg’s visible tip, floating above the water.

The Id (our biological impulse) unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. The Ego (our mediator) functions as the “executive” part of personality and mediates the demands of the id and superego. The Superego (our conscience) provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations.

Psychosexual Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

Question 31

What is free association?

Answer 31

Free association: Freud’s method of exploring the unconscious mind in which the person relaxes (often while reclining) and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial and embarrassing.

Question 32

What is resistance?

Answer 32

One of the key concepts of psychoanalysis was called “resistance,” which referred to patients’ tendency to block memories from conscious memory. One of Freud’s major techniques was to help patients move through their resistance and bring unconscious memories/thoughts into their conscious awareness through talk therapy and other techniques.

Question 33

What is the oedipus complex?

Answer 33

Oedipus Complex: Freud’s idea that boys experience sexual desire for their mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for their rival father.

Question 34

What is the electra complex?

Answer 34

Electra Complex: Freud’s idea that girls experience sexual desire for their father and similar feelings of jealousy and hatred for their rival mother.

Question 35

In what ways did Freud believe we defend against anxiety?

Answer 35

Regression, Reaction Formation, Projection, Rationalization, Displacement, Denial

Question 36

Who were the neo-freudians?

Answer 36

Carl Jung was a Neo-Freudian who believed in the collective unconscious, which he argued contains a common reservoir of images and archetypes derived from our species’ past.

Like Freud, Alfred Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual.

Like Adler, Karen Horney also believed in the social aspects (rather than sexual aspects) of childhood growth and development.

Question 37

What was Carl Roger’s person-centered theory?

Answer 37

Carl Rogers also believed in an individual’s self-actualization tendencies. He said that in order to nurture growth in others, one must be genuine, empathetic, and accepting, offering unconditional positive regard (or an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings).

Question 38

What are the big five personality types?

Answer 38

Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion

Question 39

What is reciprocal determinism?

Answer 39

The three factors, behavior, cognition, and environment, are interlocking determinants of each other. Thus, reciprocal determinism refers to the interacting influences between personality (internal cognitive factors) and environmental factors (social context).

Question 40

What is the self-serving bias?

Answer 40

We all generally tend to think we are above average. This bias can help defend our self-esteem, as it does for the people in this wheel.