UNIT 7 GLOBAL POLITICS AND Environment ENVIRONMENT* Flashcards
7.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
1) Define the concept of economic development. Is it true that it led to
environmental
Efficient Pointer Summary:
Economic Development Focus (20th Century): Economic growth was prioritized globally, with developed and developing nations striving for prosperity.
Globalization: A process of political, economic, social, and cultural exchange among nations.
Western Development Models: Developed countries imposed their growth models, which were often unrealistic and incompatible for many developing nations.
Economic Inequality: Global systems exacerbated inequality, enriching the wealthy and leaving the poor behind.
Environmental Impact: As nations grew economically, environmental concerns (resource depletion, pollution) became more pressing.
Global Environmental Crisis: Recognized through events like the Stockholm Declaration of 1972, highlighting issues like deforestation, ozone layer depletion, and endangered species.
Environmental Awareness: The global realization of resource scarcity led to calls for sustainable growth and environmental conservation.
Amiya Bagchi’s View on Globalization: Globalization is not just about markets but about shared human experiences and resources; however, the current phase of excessive industrialism has worsened inequalities and environmental damage.
Environmental Crisis: A result of over-exploitation of Earth’s resources, requiring an urgent search for sustainable survival paths and harmony with ecosystems.
Mnemonic:
GED - Globalization, Economic Development, Disparities
WEC - Western Economic models, Environmental Crisis
CIE - Cultural, Industrial Expansion; Environmental Impact
SHE - Stockholm, Harmful Effects
SDR - Scarcity, Depletion, Resources
Main Answer (In Pointers):
Introduction:
The 20th century saw economic development as the central goal for both developed and developing nations. Growth was viewed as a path to prosperity, with global trade agreements and regional partnerships encouraging nations to improve economically.
Development was framed as a limitless pursuit of growth, fostering individual freedom, choice, and prosperity.
Body:
- Economic Development and Globalization:
Economic globalization was driven by the spread of Western development models, which were adopted by both rich and poor nations despite disparities in resources and capacities.
Developing countries struggled with the challenges of adopting these models, which often led to economic inequality and resource depletion.
Globalization, through free trade and markets, became a dominant force in shaping economies, but its impacts were not always positive, leading to growing inequality and environmental deterioration.
- Environmental Challenges:
The rapid industrialization spurred by globalization has led to environmental degradation. The world began to realize the devastating impact on resources like forests, rivers, and biodiversity.
Issues like resource depletion, the ozone layer rupture, deforestation, and the extinction of species came to the forefront in the 1970s.
The Stockholm Declaration of 1972 highlighted the need for global cooperation in addressing these challenges and brought environmental concerns to the international agenda.
- Economic Growth vs. Environmental Sustainability:
Despite the apparent success of economic growth, it led to unemployment, redundancy, and scarcity for many, especially in developing countries.
The unequal distribution of growth has exacerbated problems such as resource exploitation, poor working conditions, and a looming global recession.
The awareness of these issues led to a growing demand for solutions to create sustainable development that balances economic growth with environmental conservation.
- Amiya Bagchi’s Perspective on Globalization:
According to economist Amiya Bagchi, globalization should be seen as a global exchange of ideas and resources, benefiting all nations. However, the current form of globalization, focusing heavily on free markets and industrialism, has negative consequences for the global environment and many populations.
This economic model has resulted in unemployment, resource loss, and a global recession that leaves many countries struggling.
- Global Crisis and Search for Alternatives:
The environmental crisis, exacerbated by overuse of natural resources, demands urgent action. Humanity must find sustainable paths that protect Earth’s resources and support future generations.
The search for alternatives to unsustainable development has begun globally, focusing on creating systems that foster harmony with the ecosystem.
Conclusion:
The economic development model, while initially focused on growth and prosperity, has led to widespread inequality and environmental degradation.
Moving forward, nations must address environmental challenges and find sustainable alternatives that ensure economic growth does not come at the expense of the planet.
Global cooperation and a shift in development models are essential for ensuring the survival of both the global population and the ecosystems we depend on.
7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND
THE UNITED NATIONS
Efficient Pointer Summary:
United Nations Conference on Human Environment (1972): Held in Stockholm, this event marked the first global environmental conference, with 1200 delegates from 114 countries, including leaders like Olaf Palme and Indira Gandhi.
Stockholm Declaration: A non-binding document of 26 principles, focusing on shared global responsibility for environmental conservation, particularly Principle 21, which affirmed a nation’s sovereign rights over its resources while advocating for environmental protection.
Key Outcomes:
Establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), leading international environmental meetings.
Environmental laws in India, such as a ban on commercial tree felling post the Chipko Movement.
Some treaties and agreements, e.g., London Dumping Convention (1972), Vienna Convention (1985), and others aimed at pollution control and resource conservation.
Brundtland Commission (1983): Aimed at creating sustainable development strategies; its report, Our Common Future (1987), highlighted environmental and development concerns.
Earth Summit (1992): The UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development), or Rio Summit, was a major milestone in global environmental agreements, leading to the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, and the UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change).
Rio Declaration: A landmark agreement with 27 principles for environmental protection and sustainable development, reinforcing the balance between state sovereignty and global stewardship.
Agenda 21: A non-binding action plan addressing global issues like poverty, deforestation, desertification, biodiversity, and water management, involving multiple stakeholders, including NGOs and youth.
Kyoto Summit (1997): Focused on emissions targets but lacked a concrete binding plan.
World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002): Held in Johannesburg, it reaffirmed the commitment to sustainable development, though many issues remained unresolved due to political reluctance.
Mnemonic:
SHE - Stockholm, Human Environment
SUD - Stockholm, UNEP, Declaration
BC - Brundtland Commission
ESR - Earth Summit, Rio Declaration, Sustainability
KY - Kyoto Summit, Targets
WS - World Summit, Johannesburg, Sustainability
Main Answer (In Pointers):
Introduction:
The United Nations Conference on Human Environment (1972) in Stockholm was the first significant global conference on environmental issues. It involved 114 countries and key leaders like Indira Gandhi and Olaf Palme.
The Stockholm Declaration issued at the conference consisted of 26 principles, focusing on shared global responsibility for resource conservation, particularly addressing the balance between economic development and environmental protection.
Body:
- Stockholm Conference and Declaration:
The conference sought to address global environmental challenges collectively, culminating in the Stockholm Declaration, which emphasized resource conservation, sovereignty, and environmental responsibility. Principle 21 affirmed nations’ rights to use their resources responsibly while ensuring environmental protection.
The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) was created to guide international environmental efforts, and India implemented environmental laws following grassroots movements like Chipko.
- Post-Stockholm Developments:
While initial steps after Stockholm were largely symbolic, several important treaties emerged:
London Dumping Convention (1972), Pollution from Ships Convention (1973), and the Vienna Convention (1985) were major international agreements.
In 1983, the UN General Assembly established the Brundtland Commission to propose long-term strategies for sustainable development. The Commission’s final report (Our Common Future, 1987) emphasized the need for balance between development and environmental preservation.
- Earth Summit (1992):
The UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development), also known as the Rio Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It was attended by 178 nations and over 1400 NGOs. Major outcomes included:
Rio Declaration with 27 principles for sustainable development.
Agenda 21, a comprehensive action plan covering topics from poverty to sustainable agriculture and biodiversity.
The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
- Challenges in Implementation:
The Rio Declaration emphasized state sovereignty but also stressed global stewardship. However, it highlighted the difficulty of reconciling economic development with environmental protection.
Agenda 21 was a non-binding agreement, promoting global sustainable practices and involving various stakeholders (e.g., NGOs, youth, women).
Subsequent meetings like the Kyoto Summit (1997) set targets on emissions reductions, but lacked concrete plans or binding commitments.
- World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002):
Held in Johannesburg, the summit reaffirmed the importance of sustainable development but largely consisted of rhetoric without significant commitments due to political reluctance from participating nations.
Conclusion:
The United Nations’ role in environmental conservation has been crucial, with major conferences like Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg shaping global environmental policy. However, consistent political will and concrete action plans remain challenges in ensuring true sustainability for the global community.
7.4 GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Efficient Pointer Summary
Global Environmental Protection
Global efforts for environmental management
Issues: Lack of coordination, budget constraints
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
Established: Stockholm Conference 1972
Mission: Monitor, coordinate, assess global environmental issues
Challenges: Budget constraints, lack of political will
Focus Areas: Biodiversity, ozone depletion, desertification, toxic waste, endangered species
CSD (Commission on Sustainable Development)
Established after Rio Summit
Mission: Monitor implementation of UNCED programme
Focus: Poverty eradication, sustainable consumption, natural resource protection
Challenges: Lack of executive powers, political will
GEF (Global Environment Facility)
Established: 1990 by World Bank, UNDP, UNEP
Mission: Finance projects for global environmental protection
Functions: Investment, technical assistance, research
Issues: Lack of transparency, imbalance between developed and developing nations
Need for Reforms
UN’s lack of response to developing countries
Poor coordination and institutional fragmentation
Strengthen UNEP and improve coordination among agencies
Mnemonics
Global environmental protection
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
CSD (Commission on Sustainable Development)
GEF (Global Environment Facility)
Reforms needed
Mnemonic: GUCGR (Global, UNEP, CSD, GEF, Reforms)
500-Word Answer
Introduction
Global institutions play a critical role in environmental protection, but their effectiveness has often been hampered by a lack of coordination, insufficient funding, and political will. Several bodies under the UN’s umbrella, such as the UNEP, CSD, and GEF, have been established to address pressing environmental challenges. However, these organizations often struggle to implement their goals effectively.
Body
- UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
Establishment: UNEP was created after the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment.
Mission: Its primary objectives are to monitor and coordinate global environmental activities, assess environmental changes, and promote better management practices.
Challenges:
Budget Constraints: Despite its ambitious goals, UNEP suffers from financial limitations. Only 75 out of 179 member states contribute to its funding.
Lack of Executive Powers: UNEP cannot enforce its environmental goals and must rely on cooperation from member states, often resulting in a lack of concrete action.
Developing Countries’ Skepticism: Initially, many developing nations feared that UNEP’s work would increase their financial burden without providing sufficient support.
Political Will: The major hindrance to UNEP’s effectiveness is the lack of political will from nations, which undermines the program’s success.
- CSD (Commission on Sustainable Development)
Establishment: The CSD was created following the Rio Summit to strengthen the UNEP and ensure more effective implementation of sustainable development goals.
Mission: The CSD monitors the progress of the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) programme, reviews financial contributions for conservation efforts, and facilitates technology transfer.
Challenges:
No Executive Powers: Like UNEP, CSD lacks the authority to enforce its objectives.
Themes and Focus Areas: The Commission has addressed broad themes like poverty eradication, sustainable consumption, and natural resource protection. However, its limited scope has led to insufficient progress.
Lack of Political Will: Despite commitments made in the Johannesburg Declaration, the CSD has not seen meaningful action, mostly due to political unwillingness.
- GEF (Global Environment Facility)
Establishment: Created in 1990 by the World Bank, UNDP, and UNEP, the GEF finances environmental projects.
Mission: It aims to protect the global environment through investments, technical assistance, and research.
Challenges:
Developed vs. Developing Countries: There is a mismatch in expectations, with developed nations demanding more commitment while developing countries feel the GEF is too influenced by the World Bank’s interests.
Transparency: Developing countries often criticize the GEF for its lack of transparency, as decisions are perceived to favor the priorities of wealthier nations.
- Need for Reforms
UN’s Response to Developing Countries: The UN has often been criticized for not adequately addressing the concerns of developing nations in environmental management.
Coordination Issues: Lack of coordination between the various environmental bodies results in fragmented efforts and inefficiency.
Institutional Fragmentation: Several reports highlight the need for better institutional coherence and a unified approach to environmental issues.
Strengthening UNEP: UNEP remains one of the oldest and most respected agencies in environmental management, but it requires stronger support, clearer mandates, and adequate funding to carry out its tasks effectively.
Better Coordination: Efforts must be made to enhance coordination among different environmental bodies to ensure global environmental protection goals are met.
Conclusion
The efforts of global institutions like UNEP, CSD, and GEF have been instrumental in addressing environmental concerns. However, their limitations in funding, executive power, and political support hinder their overall effectiveness. Strengthening these organizations, improving coordination, and addressing the concerns of developing nations are essential to achieving sustainable global environmental protection. The need for reforms is urgent to ensure that the international community can rise to the challenges of environmental conservation.
7.5 ISSUES OF CONCERN
Efficient Pointer Summary
Environmental Degradation
Man-made destruction: Greed, consumption patterns, pollution
Impact on air, water, land, forests, atmosphere, and resources
Issues of Concern:
Ozone Layer Depletion: Vienna Convention (1985), Montreal Protocol (1987)
Climate Change: Rio Summit (1992), Kyoto Protocol, emissions of toxic gases
Deforestation: Impact on forests, wildlife, Rio Summit discussions
Desertification: Convention (1994), countries’ action plans
Biodiversity Conservation: Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), wildlife protection
Freshwater Resources: Water scarcity, urbanization, watershed management
Marine Resources: Ocean pollution, overfishing, protection of coral reefs
Challenges:
Lack of political will
Commitment issues by nation states
Global Initiatives: Positive steps taken but need for further commitment
Mnemonics
Environmental degradation
Ozone depletion
Climate change
Deforestation
Desertification
Biodiversity
Freshwater resources
Marine resources
Mnemonic: EOCDDFBM (Environmental, Ozone, Climate, Deforestation, Desertification, Biodiversity, Freshwater, Marine)
500-Word Answer
Introduction
Conservation of the natural environment has been one of the most neglected global concerns. Despite numerous policies and strategies aimed at addressing environmental degradation, human actions—driven by greed and negligence—have caused significant harm. Degradation of ecological components such as air, water, land, forests, and the atmosphere has escalated, making these issues critical for future survival. Several major environmental concerns have emerged as pressing issues for global attention, and efforts have been made to address them through international agreements and initiatives.
Body
- Ozone Layer Depletion
Problem: The depletion of the ozone layer due to chemicals like CFCs has allowed harmful ultraviolet rays to reach Earth, disrupting the ecological balance.
Key Agreements:
The Vienna Convention (1985) and the Montreal Protocol (1987) were pivotal in banning ozone-depleting chemicals and creating a fund for global actions.
Outcome: The ozone-depleting chemicals have been phased out, but ongoing vigilance is needed.
- Climate Change
Problem: Emission of toxic gases, especially carbon dioxide, has led to climate change, causing extreme weather patterns like floods and droughts.
Key Agreements:
The Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) was established during the Rio Summit.
The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.
Funding: The Global Environment Facility (GEF) provides financial assistance to developing nations to combat climate change.
- Deforestation
Problem: Uncontrolled deforestation, driven by human activities like logging and agriculture, threatens biodiversity and contributes to climate change.
International Focus:
The Rio Summit (1992) discussed forest conservation and encouraged non-binding agreements.
Conservation efforts must include protecting wildlife and plant species.
Action Required: Governments, local bodies, and NGOs must collaborate to halt deforestation and promote sustainable forest management.
- Desertification
Problem: The spread of deserts due to unsustainable land use, overgrazing, and climate change leads to the degradation of fertile land.
Key Agreement:
The Convention to Combat Desertification (1994) calls for national action plans to address desertification and land degradation.
Challenge: Desertification remains a significant challenge in arid and semi-arid regions, requiring coordinated global efforts and resources.
- Biodiversity Conservation
Problem: The loss of biodiversity, including the extinction of species, is a dire consequence of environmental degradation.
Key Agreement:
The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) signed at the Rio Summit aimed to conserve biodiversity by protecting habitats, wildlife, and ecosystems.
Action: Biodiversity conservation is essential for ecosystem stability and food security.
- Freshwater Resources
Problem: Freshwater scarcity is a growing crisis, especially in urban areas where population pressure strains water resources.
Challenges:
Watershed management and international waterway protection are critical for sustainable water use.
The lack of commitment to international agreements on watercourses exacerbates the issue.
- Marine Resources
Problem: Marine ecosystems face threats from overfishing, pollution, and climate change, including coral reef destruction.
Key Agreement:
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea governs marine resource conservation, including the protection of marine life and fisheries.
Action Needed: Coastal nations must strengthen marine conservation efforts to protect marine biodiversity.
Conclusion
The global community has made commendable strides in addressing key environmental concerns such as ozone depletion, climate change, and biodiversity loss. However, challenges remain, particularly in securing political will and ensuring that binding agreements are honored. The international community must continue to work collaboratively, with a focus on improving commitment and coordinating efforts. While progress is visible, much more needs to be done to safeguard the planet’s ecological balance and ensure a sustainable future. The global agenda must continue to be driven by leadership from governments, international organizations, and civil society.
7.6 RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
Efficient Pointer Summary
Environmental Security:
Protect people from environmental threats, both natural and man-made.
Issues include pollution, global warming, access to clean water, and habitat degradation.
Right to a Clean Environment:
Ensures access to clean air, water, and soil.
States must protect, preserve, and improve the environment.
States are obligated to take necessary actions, although financial constraints exist.
International Agreements:
Stockholm Declaration (1972): Right to a healthy environment, and steps to prevent pollution.
International Covenants: Right to life and the highest standard of health.
India’s Legal Framework:
Constitutional Provisions:
Article 21: Right to life includes the right to a pollution-free environment.
Article 48A: Environmental protection as a state policy.
Article 51A(g): Citizen’s duty to protect and improve the environment.
Judicial Interpretation: Supreme Court has expanded the right to life to include the right to a healthy environment.
Mnemonics
Environmental security
Right to a clean environment
International covenants
Indian legal framework
State responsibility
Citizen responsibility
Mnemonic: ERIISC (Environmental, Right, International, Indian, State, Citizen)
500-Word Answer
Introduction
Environmental security is increasingly recognized as essential for human well-being and survival. While most discussions on security focus on physical threats like crime, there is an equally pressing concern about threats to the natural environment. The degradation of air, water, and soil, along with the effects of global warming, poses long-term risks to human health and survival. The Right to Environmental Security ensures that individuals have the right to live in a safe and clean environment, free from pollution and environmental hazards.
Body
- Environmental Security: Definition and Importance
Environmental security aims to protect people from the short-term and long-term impacts of environmental degradation, both natural and man-made.
Key threats to environmental security include pollution, global warming, deforestation, and lack of access to clean water. These issues can lead to health hazards, economic instability, and social unrest.
Protecting the environment is not only a matter of preserving natural resources but also ensuring the survival and well-being of future generations.
- Right to a Clean Environment
The Right to a Clean Environment includes the right to healthy air, clean water, and uncontaminated soil, essential for sustaining life.
This right mandates that States take responsibility for the protection, preservation, and improvement of the environment.
Under this right, every individual is entitled to live in an environment that does not pose risks to human health or the ecosystem.
While states have obligations to ensure a safe environment, limited financial resources often constrain their ability to implement effective environmental protection measures, particularly in developing countries.
- International Legal Framework
The Stockholm Declaration (1972) was a significant step in international environmental law, asserting the fundamental right to a quality environment that allows for dignity and well-being (Principle 1).
Principle 7 of the Stockholm Declaration calls for states to take action to prevent pollution and preserve public health.
International covenants like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights further emphasize the right to life and the right to the highest attainable standard of health through environmental protection.
- India’s Legal Framework for Environmental Protection
In India, the right to a clean environment has not been directly included in the Fundamental Rights (Part III) of the Constitution but is implied under the Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV).
The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act of 1976 introduced Article 48A, which mandates that the State must protect and improve the environment.
Article 51A(g) places a duty on every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.
The Supreme Court of India has interpreted Article 21 (Right to Life) to include the right to live in a pollution-free environment and protect ecological balance.
The court has expanded the right to life to include the right to a healthy environment and recognized environmental protection as a constitutional duty of the state.
- State and Citizen Responsibility
State Responsibility: The state must ensure the protection and improvement of the environment by implementing policies, adopting laws, and allocating resources.
Citizen Responsibility: Every individual must take responsibility for their actions that may affect the environment, such as waste management, conservation of resources, and advocacy for sustainable practices.
Conclusion
Environmental security is a fundamental human right that is intrinsically linked to the right to life and the right to health. Governments, international bodies, and individuals must work collectively to protect the environment and ensure a sustainable future. While progress has been made in recognizing this right, continued efforts are needed to tackle pollution, climate change, and resource depletion. Strong legal frameworks and active participation from all sectors are necessary to ensure that future generations inherit a clean, safe, and sustainable environment.
7.7 Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.1 Targets under the Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.2 Working of Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.3 Global Politics and Diplomacy of Climate Change
Efficient Pointer Summary
Paris Climate Agreement Overview:
Adopted in December 2015 by 195 countries at COP21 under UNFCCC.
Consensus on three key points: human-driven climate change, threat to mankind, and urgent global action needed.
Key Factors Driving Global Warming:
Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) trap heat.
Primary sources: burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
Impact of Rising Temperatures:
Disrupts weather patterns, causing extreme weather events like droughts, floods, and wildfires.
Impacts human health and biodiversity (e.g., heat-related deaths, respiratory issues, rising sea levels).
Vulnerable nations (e.g., Maldives) face existential threats from climate change.
Global Action Required:
Limiting global warming to under 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, to avoid catastrophic consequences.
Paris Agreement Targets
Mitigation Efforts:
Limit global temperature rise by reducing emissions.
Countries set national carbon reduction targets (NDCs).
India’s target: Reduce emissions intensity by 33-35% below 2005 levels, 40% non-fossil-fuel electricity by 2030.
Transparency & Accountability:
Monitoring and reporting of emission progress.
Countries to update their targets every five years.
Financial assistance for developing nations to mitigate climate change.
Support for Developing Nations:
Developed countries to provide financial resources to help developing countries reduce emissions and adapt.
Working of the Paris Agreement
Ratification & Effectiveness:
Agreement requires 55 nations representing 55% of global emissions.
Ratified by 197 countries (Syria as last signatory).
US withdrawal possible, but process takes several years.
Global Politics & Diplomacy
Background:
The Paris Agreement is the culmination of years of international negotiations, succeeding the Kyoto Protocol (1997).
Differences from Kyoto: Flexibility in targets, no penalties for non-compliance, and all countries must participate.
Mnemonics
Paris Agreement
Global Warming
Targets and Transparency
Mitigation
Adaptation
Support for Developing Nations
Mnemonic: PGTMA (Paris, Global, Targets, Mitigation, Adaptation, Support)
500-Word Answer
Introduction
The Paris Climate Agreement was a historic achievement, signed by 195 countries in December 2015, during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This agreement aimed to tackle the critical issue of climate change by setting targets for greenhouse gas emissions reductions, enhancing transparency, and mobilizing financial support for developing countries.
Body
- Key Issues Addressed by the Paris Agreement
Human-Driven Climate Change: The agreement recognizes that human activities, primarily through the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, are driving global warming. The concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide has reached unprecedented levels, intensifying the greenhouse effect.
Rising Temperatures: The effects of increasing global temperatures are severe, with changes in weather patterns leading to more frequent heatwaves, floods, and droughts. These events threaten human health and the ecosystem. Sea level rise, especially in low-lying nations such as the Maldives, presents an existential threat, pushing governments to consider relocating entire populations.
Urgency for Global Action: To mitigate global warming, the Paris Agreement set the goal of limiting the rise in global temperature to well below 2°C, with a more ambitious target of 1.5°C. This is necessary to prevent extreme climate impacts such as mass extinctions, more severe hurricanes, and widespread droughts.
- Key Targets Under the Paris Agreement
Mitigation Efforts: Countries have made Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For example, India committed to reducing its emissions intensity by 33-35% by 2030 and increasing its renewable energy share to 40%.
Transparency and Accountability: The agreement includes mechanisms for monitoring and reporting progress, ensuring that nations are held accountable for their emissions reductions. Countries must submit updated targets every five years, with experts assessing their progress.
Support for Developing Nations: The agreement acknowledges that developing nations, which contribute less to climate change, are often the most vulnerable to its effects. Developed countries are expected to provide financial assistance to these nations to help them mitigate climate change impacts and adapt to its effects. The Copenhagen Accord (2009) had already pledged $100 billion annually for such efforts, with the Paris Agreement building on this target.
- Working of the Agreement
For the agreement to come into force, it needed the ratification of at least 55 nations, representing 55% of global emissions. This milestone was achieved in October 2016, and the agreement came into effect on November 4, 2016.
While the US initially joined the agreement in 2016, President Trump announced in 2017 the intention to withdraw, though the process will take years. However, the US continues to participate in UN climate negotiations, and efforts at local and state levels in the US remain strong.
- Global Politics and Diplomacy
The Paris Agreement replaces the Kyoto Protocol, which had set binding emissions reduction targets only for developed countries. The Paris Agreement requires all countries, developed and developing, to contribute to emissions reductions, with each setting their own targets and pledges.
While the Paris Agreement allows flexibility in terms of specific targets, it stresses transparency and accountability. Countries must review and enhance their commitments over time, with a focus on scaling up efforts to meet the global temperature targets.
Conclusion
The Paris Climate Agreement represents a global commitment to combating climate change and ensuring a sustainable future. While challenges remain, especially in terms of achieving the ambitious goals of limiting global temperature rise, the agreement provides a framework for collective action, enhanced transparency, and financial support for vulnerable nations. The commitment of all nations, both developed and developing, is crucial to addressing one of the most pressing issues of our time.
7.7.1 Targets under the Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.1 Targets under the Paris Climate Agreement
The Paris Agreement framework for global climate action is structured into three main parts:
- Limit Global Temperature Rise by Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The agreement aims to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C and ideally to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
Countries are urged to halt the increase of global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible and to become carbon neutral by the second half of the century.
186 countries (representing over 90% of global emissions) have set national carbon reduction targets. These vary in scope based on a country’s capabilities, level of development, and historical contribution to emissions.
Example: India’s goal includes reducing emission intensity by 33-35% from 2005 levels and generating 40% of electricity from non-fossil fuels by 2030.
- Framework for Transparency, Accountability, and More Ambitious Targets
The Paris Agreement mandates regular monitoring, verification, and reporting of each country’s progress on emission reductions.
Countries must report their greenhouse gas inventories, enabling external evaluations.
Countries are expected to update their pledges every five years, and developed countries must also report on their financial contributions to assist developing nations with emissions reduction and adaptation to climate change.
- Mobilize Support for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Developing Nations
While developing countries and small island nations have contributed the least to climate change, they are most vulnerable to its effects.
Developed countries are encouraged to provide financial support for the mitigation and adaptation efforts of developing nations.
The Copenhagen Accord had committed $100 billion annually for developing nations by 2020, and the Paris Agreement sets the expectation of increasing this amount by 2025, with mechanisms to achieve this goal.
While contributions are not legally binding, developed nations are required to report the financial support they provide or plan to mobilize.
7.7.2 Working of the Paris Climate Agreemen
Efficient Pointer Summary:
Agreement Approval: 55 nations, 55% emissions
Agreement Activation: October 5, 2016, November 4, 2016
Countries Adopted: 197 countries, Syria last
Major Exclusions: Russia, Turkey, Iran
Target: Limit temperature rise to 1.5°C, 2.7-3.7°C projected
US Entry: Obama, September 2016
Trump Withdrawal: Election 2016, climate change denial
Withdrawal Process: 3 years wait, 1-year exit (2020)
Rejoining Possibility: Future president can rejoin
US Efforts Post-Withdrawal: UN participation, local/state-level initiatives
Mnemonics:
AACTACU
Agreement Approval
Agreement Activation
Countries Adopted
Target
Agreement entry (US)
Climate Change Denial (Trump)
US Withdrawal Process
Main 500-Word Answer:
Introduction
The Paris Climate Agreement took significant steps toward global climate action, with a goal of limiting the temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. However, the agreement’s effectiveness depends on wide adoption and commitment from nations around the world. While many countries have committed to reducing emissions, challenges remain in meeting the ambitious targets set out by the agreement.
Body
- Agreement Approval
For the Paris Agreement to take effect, it was required that 55 countries representing at least 55% of global emissions ratify the agreement. This milestone was reached on October 5, 2016, and the agreement went into force on November 4, 2016.
- Countries Adopted
As of now, 197 countries have formally adopted the Paris Agreement, with Syria being the final signatory. However, Russia, Turkey, and Iran are notable major emitting countries that have yet to officially join the agreement.
- Target Goals
The Paris Agreement set a clear objective: limit the global temperature rise to 1.5°C by the end of the century. However, studies indicate that the pledges made by countries may only result in a temperature rise of 2.7°C to 3.7°C. This gap reflects the difficulty of meeting the Paris targets.
- Challenges to Meeting Targets
Many nations are currently behind on their commitments to reduce emissions, raising concerns about whether the goals set in the agreement will be met. As nations struggle to meet their individual goals, there is hope that over time, stronger actions will be taken to bridge the gap between targets and progress.
- US Entry
The United States joined the Paris Agreement in September 2016 through an executive action by President Barack Obama. The agreement did not impose new obligations on the US, as existing domestic laws were already in place to reduce carbon emissions.
- Trump’s Climate Denial and Withdrawal
During his 2016 election campaign, Donald Trump, the Republican Party’s candidate, openly denied climate change, labeling it a “hoax.” He pledged to withdraw the US from the Paris Agreement if elected. After winning, Trump followed through, announcing the US’s withdrawal from the agreement.
- US Withdrawal Process
The Paris Agreement includes provisions that make withdrawal a lengthy process. A country must wait for three years after the agreement is in force before officially announcing its intention to leave. Once a country does announce, it must wait for one more year before the withdrawal becomes effective. This meant that the earliest the US could officially exit was November 4, 2020, a day after the presidential election.
- Rejoining Possibility
Even though Trump’s decision to withdraw may seem final, the process allows for a future US president to rejoin the agreement with just one month’s notice, ensuring that the country’s commitment to global climate action could potentially be restored.
- Post-Withdrawal US Efforts
Despite the withdrawal, US representatives continue to participate in UN climate negotiations. At the state and local government levels, there is strong support for maintaining efforts to meet the Paris Agreement goals. Local initiatives and movements are working to ensure the US remains on track to meet its climate targets even without federal backing.
Conclusion
While the Paris Climate Agreement represents a global commitment to combat climate change, its success depends on continued efforts from all nations, including the US. Despite the setbacks and challenges, there is still room for progress through cooperative efforts, local actions, and the potential for rejoining the agreement in the future. The key to achieving the Paris Agreement’s goals lies in the increasing transparency, accountability, and the drive for ambitious targets moving forward.
7.7.3 Global Politics and Diplomacy of Climate Change
Efficient Pointer Summary:
Preceding Agreements: Rio Earth Summit 1992, UNFCCC
Kyoto Protocol: Adopted 1997, legally binding targets for developed countries
US Stance on Kyoto: Signed but not ratified, economic concerns
Kyoto’s Extension: Extended to 2020, COP18 Doha
Durban 2011: Agreed on a new global treaty (Paris Agreement)
Paris vs Kyoto: Universal participation, flexibility in commitments
NDCs: Nationally Determined Contributions, voluntary targets
Monitoring and Reporting: Regular reassessment, no penalties
Five-Year Pledge: Regular updates on targets (Paris Agreement)
Mnemonics:
PKNDFP
Preceding Agreements
Kyoto Protocol
National Stance on Kyoto (US)
Durban Decision 2011
Flexibility in Paris Agreement
Progress through Monitoring
Main 500-Word Answer:
Introduction
The journey to the Paris Climate Agreement was shaped by decades of international political negotiations and diplomatic efforts. It built upon earlier treaties like the Kyoto Protocol and frameworks set during summits such as the Rio Earth Summit of 1992. This process represents the world’s growing recognition of climate change and the need for a collective, yet flexible, approach to address its threats.
Body
- Preceding Agreements
The Rio Earth Summit of 1992 marked a significant milestone with the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a treaty that remains active today. The UNFCCC laid the foundation for future global negotiations on climate change. It aimed to prevent human interference with Earth’s climate systems but did not set specific emission targets for individual countries. Rather, it created a platform for ongoing international dialogue.
- Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 at COP3 in Japan, marked the first time nations agreed on legally binding emissions reduction targets. However, it only targeted developed countries, reflecting the idea that they were historically responsible for the bulk of emissions. The US signed but did not ratify the Protocol, citing concerns that its implementation would harm the US economy while excluding major emerging economies like China and India. As a result, the Kyoto Protocol achieved only modest success in meeting global emission reduction goals.
- US Stance on Kyoto
While the US signed the Kyoto Protocol, President George W. Bush argued it would hurt the American economy, especially because it did not include developing countries such as China and India, which were rapidly increasing their emissions. This stance prevented the US from ratifying the treaty, contributing to its limited impact on global emission levels.
- Kyoto’s Extension
The Kyoto Protocol initially ran until 2012, but it was extended to 2020 during COP18 in Doha, Qatar. Despite some developed nations withdrawing from their commitments, COP17 in Durban (2011) paved the way for the eventual creation of the Paris Climate Agreement. The Durban Decision stipulated that a comprehensive global treaty, involving all major emitters, would be concluded by 2015.
- Durban 2011
At COP17 in Durban, it was agreed that a new, inclusive climate treaty would be drafted, addressing both developed and emerging economies. This decision eventually led to the formation of the Paris Agreement in 2015, which would replace the Kyoto Protocol by 2020.
- Paris Agreement vs Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement represents a more inclusive and flexible approach compared to the Kyoto Protocol:
Universal Participation: Unlike Kyoto, the Paris Agreement requires all countries—developed and developing—to contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Flexibility in Commitments: Countries in the Paris Agreement are not bound by legally mandated targets. Instead, they set their own Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are voluntary emissions targets.
Monitoring and Reporting: While the Paris Agreement imposes no penalties for falling short of emissions targets, it requires countries to report progress regularly and to reassess their targets every five years.
- NDCs and Accountability
The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) provide countries the freedom to determine how they will reduce emissions. There are no penalties for not meeting the targets, but the Paris Agreement’s emphasis on regular monitoring, reporting, and reassessing targets ensures that countries are held accountable for their contributions over time.
- Five-Year Commitment
A critical element of the Paris Agreement is the five-year commitment cycle. Every five years, countries are expected to announce updated targets, with the aim of progressively increasing ambition to meet global climate goals.
Conclusion
The Paris Agreement builds upon the groundwork laid by earlier treaties like the Kyoto Protocol and the UNFCCC. It represents a shift toward a more inclusive, flexible, and transparent approach to combating climate change. While it faces challenges in terms of ambition and accountability, the regular reassessment of Nationally Determined Contributions ensures that progress can be made toward meeting the global climate goals. The Paris Agreement is a key milestone in the ongoing global political and diplomatic efforts to tackle climate change.
7.8 INDIA AND THE PARIS CLIMATE
COMMITMENTS
Efficient Pointer Summary:
India’s Commitments:
- Reduce GDP emission intensity by 33-35% by 2030
- 40% of power from non-fossil sources
- Create additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes by 2030
Progress:
Emission intensity reduction: 21% by 2014
Non-fossil fuel capacity: 35% by 2018
Lagging Goal:
Carbon sink creation (forests and tree cover)
Energy Policy Drivers:
Air pollution crisis
Energy access for households
Economic benefits from solar energy
Renewable Energy Growth:
70 GW renewable capacity (solar, wind, biomass)
Targets: 100 GW solar, 60 GW wind, 15 GW biomass by 2022
227 GW renewable capacity by 2022
Support Needed:
Finance, technology, capacity building from developed countries
Principle of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBPR-RC)
Mnemonics:
IPCAR
India’s Commitments
Progress (Emission intensity, Non-fossil fuel capacity)
Carbon Sink Goal (Lagging)
Air Pollution Crisis
Renewable Energy Growth (Targets, Capacity)
Main 500-Word Answer:
Introduction
India, as a signatory to the Paris Climate Agreement, has set ambitious climate targets under three key commitments. These commitments aim to address both the global climate crisis and India’s domestic challenges, such as high air pollution and energy access needs. While India is on track to meet most of its goals ahead of schedule, it faces challenges in achieving its third commitment, the creation of an additional carbon sink.
Body
- India’s Climate Commitments
Under the Paris Climate Agreement, India committed to reducing the greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP by 33-35% from 2005 levels by 2030.
Additionally, India aims to ensure that 40% of its energy comes from non-fossil fuel sources.
The third commitment involves increasing India’s forest cover to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030.
- Progress Toward Emission Intensity and Non-Fossil Fuel Power
India is making strong progress on two key goals:
By 2014, the emission intensity of India’s economy was reduced by 21% compared to 2005 levels, with an average annual improvement of 2%.
By March 2018, 35% of India’s energy capacity was based on non-fossil fuels such as renewables, hydroelectricity, and nuclear. India is exceeding its original targets and is increasing the share of renewable energy in its energy mix.
- Lagging Carbon Sink Goal
While India has made significant strides in reducing emissions intensity and expanding renewable energy capacity, the carbon sink creation goal is lagging behind. The government aims to increase forest cover, but it faces challenges in achieving this target by 2030.
- Domestic Drivers of Renewable Energy Policy
Air pollution is a significant domestic driver of India’s focus on renewable energy. In 2017, air pollution caused around 1.24 million deaths in India, and the WHO identified 11 Indian cities as having the highest particulate matter pollution worldwide.
In addition, energy access remains a critical issue, with over 30 million homes still without electricity. India is committed to providing reliable energy to all its citizens.
Economic incentives also play a role. India’s commitment to renewables is not only about tackling climate change but also about positioning itself as a global leader in solar energy. India has already reduced the cost of renewable energy by 50% from 2017 to 2018, positioning itself to achieve greater energy security.
- Renewable Energy Growth and Targets
India has made impressive strides in renewable energy development:
Solar capacity increased eightfold from 2014 to 2018 (from 2.63 GW to 22 GW).
Wind capacity grew from 21 GW to 34 GW during the same period, bringing total renewable energy capacity to 70 GW.
India has set ambitious targets:
Install 100 GW of solar energy, 60 GW of wind power, and an additional 15 GW of biomass and small hydro by 2022.
Total renewable capacity target for 2022 is 227 GW.
- India’s Approach: Equity and CBPR-RC
India’s climate policy is guided by the principles of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBPR-RC), as outlined in the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement.
These principles ensure that while all nations have a shared responsibility to address climate change, developed countries, which have historically contributed more to emissions, should take greater responsibility in providing financial, technological, and capacity-building support to developing countries like India.
Conclusion
India’s efforts under the Paris Climate Agreement reflect its commitment to climate action, driven by both global obligations and domestic needs. The country has made significant progress in reducing emissions intensity and increasing renewable energy capacity, but faces challenges in expanding its forest cover to meet carbon sink targets. As India continues to industrialize sustainably, international support in the form of finance, technology, and capacity building is crucial to achieving its climate goals and contributing to the global fight against climate change.
