PYQ Flashcards
- What is Globalisation ? Explain the importance of digital globalisation.
Efficient Pointer Summary for “What is Globalisation?”
Definition: Process linking global social, economic, cultural, and political dimensions.
Deterritorialization: Reduces relevance of borders through digital and media.
Interconnectedness: Grows transnational relationships and networks.
Speed: Accelerates movement of people, information, goods.
Long-term: Roots in historical integration, now modernized by technology.
Multi-dimensional: Influences various areas, from politics to culture.
Digital Globalisation: Latest phase driven by internet, AI, e-commerce, 3D printing, increasing economic integration and speed.
Mnemonic: “DIGITALS”
Deterritorialization, Interconnectedness, Globalisation phases, Impacts, Transnational relationships, Advances, Long-term, Speed.
Main Answer in Points (500 Words)
Introduction
Globalisation is the complex process that interconnects different parts of the world across social, economic, cultural, and political dimensions. This phenomenon allows local events to be influenced by happenings miles away and promotes exchanges of ideas, goods, and values on a global scale.
Scholars like Anthony Giddens and David Held emphasize globalisation’s role in linking local and global realms, where technology has enabled faster, more comprehensive connections among individuals and communities.
Body
Definition and Key Aspects of Globalisation
Deterritorialization: Geographical borders become less relevant as technology bridges distances. Through media, the internet, and social platforms, events in one location immediately influence others, enhancing global awareness and interconnectedness.
Interconnectedness: Advances in transportation and communication create closer connections at local, regional, and international levels, facilitating a seamless exchange of information, products, and services.
Homogenization vs. Indigenization: Globalisation often promotes a uniform culture through “globalisation from above,” but there is also “globalisation from below,” where local traditions integrate with global influences, enriching cultural diversity.
Speed: Technology accelerates the movement of information, people, goods, and ideas, transforming the pace of social and economic activities worldwide.
Long-term Process: Historical roots of globalisation stretch back to early trade routes, with phases like proto-globalisation (1600-1800) and the modern phase (1800s-present) driven by industrialization and international trade.
Phases of Globalisation
Archaic and Proto-globalisation: Initial interactions were established by tribal leaders, traders, and explorers, spreading knowledge and goods across regions.
Modern Globalisation: Fueled by colonialism, imperialism, and industrialization, this phase expanded global markets and spurred scientific advancements.
Digital Globalisation (Contemporary): Since the 1980s, the internet, rapid communication, and transport systems have revolutionized globalisation, marking a shift towards digitally driven interdependence.
Digital Globalisation and Its Significance
Third and Fourth Industrial Revolutions: The Third Industrial Revolution enabled e-commerce and online financial systems, while the Fourth Industrial Revolution introduces AI, robotics, and advanced technologies, creating new global dynamics.
Economic Integration: E-commerce allows businesses to reach global consumers efficiently, providing access to a wider customer base and instant transactions.
Cultural Exchange: Digital platforms promote cross-cultural awareness and engagement, fostering a sense of global community while also introducing challenges around cultural homogeneity.
Innovation and Employment: As digital advancements reshape industries, new job opportunities emerge in technology sectors, while traditional jobs face automation-related displacement.
Environmental and Social Impact: The spread of digital globalisation highlights ecological concerns like carbon emissions and resource depletion, driving efforts toward sustainable practices.
Conclusion
Current Landscape: Globalisation presents significant benefits by enhancing connectivity and trade, but it also brings challenges like income inequality, cultural tensions, and environmental degradation. The rise of anti-globalisation sentiments reflects concerns about its uneven impact.
Future Prospects: As digital globalisation continues to evolve, its influence on economics, politics, and culture will shape the coming decades. Balancing integration with sustainability and inclusivity will be crucial for addressing the challenges and harnessing the full potential of a connected world.
Globalisation, especially in its digital phase, offers transformative potential but requires adaptive strategies to foster equitable, sustainable development across all regions.
- How is classical liberalism related with the new economic world order ? Explain.
Efficient Pointer Summary for “Classical Liberalism and the New Economic World Order”
Free Market: Emphasis on limited government intervention in the economy.
Individualism: Belief in individual economic freedom and self-interest driving progress.
Private Property: Focus on property rights as a foundation for wealth and innovation.
Global Trade: Promotion of open, international trade and minimal restrictions.
Minimal State: Preference for a limited government that primarily protects rights.
Neoliberalism: Modern version emphasizing deregulation, privatization, and global markets.
Economic Integration: Driven by global institutions promoting liberal policies.
Mnemonic: “FIGMENT”
Free Market, Individualism, Global Trade, Minimal State, Economic Integration, Neoliberalism, Trade liberalization.
Main Answer in Points (500 Words)
Introduction
Classical Liberalism is a political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, private property, and limited government intervention in the economy.
Rooted in the works of thinkers like Adam Smith and John Locke, classical liberalism has heavily influenced the structure of the New Economic World Order — a global system prioritizing free-market principles and international trade.
Body
Free Market Principles
Core Belief: Classical liberalism promotes a free market, with limited government interference. This principle is foundational to the new economic order, as it enables competition, efficiency, and innovation.
Self-Regulating Markets: The invisible hand theory, proposed by Adam Smith, suggests that markets self-regulate when left to individual initiative, which aligns with today’s global economic trends.
Influence on Policy: International bodies like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Trade Organization (WTO) advocate for reduced trade barriers, mirroring classical liberalism’s emphasis on minimal interference.
Individualism and Economic Freedom
Role of the Individual: Classical liberalism asserts that individuals acting in their self-interest contribute to economic progress. This belief drives the new world order’s focus on economic freedoms and individual entrepreneurship.
Global Opportunities: By opening borders and facilitating trade, the new order allows individuals to access global markets, embodying the ideals of classical liberalism on an international scale.
Human Capital: Individuals are seen as assets in the new economy, and policies aim to maximize their potential through innovation and competition.
Private Property and Innovation
Property Rights: Private ownership is seen as essential for wealth creation. The new economic world order promotes strong property rights to encourage investment and technological progress.
Intellectual Property: In a globalized economy, protection of intellectual property rights is vital for sustaining innovation, as envisioned in classical liberalism.
Global Trade and Minimal State
Trade Liberalization: Classical liberalism supports free trade, reducing tariffs and barriers that impede the movement of goods. The new world order actively promotes trade liberalization, seen in trade agreements and regional economic integration.
Limited Government Role: In alignment with liberal principles, the state’s role is minimized in economic management, focusing on protecting property rights and enforcing contracts. This limited intervention is evident in today’s international economic policies.
Neoliberalism: An updated form of classical liberalism, emphasizing deregulation, privatization, and open markets, forms the backbone of modern global economic policies.
Economic Integration and Global Institutions
Global Institutions: Organizations like the IMF, WTO, and World Bank play key roles in promoting liberal economic policies globally, pushing for structural reforms and trade openness that reflect classical liberalism.
Economic Interdependence: The interconnectedness of economies has led to policies that encourage cooperation and open markets, aligning with the liberal ideal of a competitive, integrated global market.
Conclusion
Legacy and Impact: Classical liberalism has significantly influenced the framework of the new economic world order, advocating for free markets, property rights, and minimal government intervention.
Future Challenges: While the liberal model has promoted economic growth, issues like inequality and environmental degradation prompt calls for reforms. Balancing liberal principles with sustainable practices is essential for an inclusive global economy.
Classical liberalism’s core principles continue to shape modern economic policies, advocating for an interconnected world that values individual freedom, market efficiency, and economic growth.
- Explain the negative and positive impact of globalisation on culture.
Efficient Pointer Summary for “Positive and Negative Impacts of Globalization on Culture”
Homogenization: Spread of Western, especially American, culture and values.
Cultural Diversity: Growth in hybrid cultures and preservation of local identity.
Consumerism: Rise of global consumer culture, potentially soulless.
Technological Advancement: Increased connectivity promoting cultural awareness.
Cultural Imperialism: Dominance of Western culture over local traditions.
Cultural Identity: Heightened awareness and protection of cultural uniqueness.
Economic Inequality: Unequal spread of globalization benefits impacting culture.
Mnemonic: “HCTCECE”
Homogenization, Cultural Diversity, Technological Advancement, Cultural Imperialism, Consumerism, Economic Inequality, Cultural Identity.
Main Answer in Points (500 Words)
Introduction
Globalization has influenced cultures worldwide, impacting traditions, identities, and social values both positively and negatively.
As global integration grows, cultures transform through the spread of ideas, products, and social norms, creating debates about cultural homogenization versus preservation.
Body
Positive Impacts of Globalization on Culture
Cultural Diversity and Hybridization
Globalization encourages cross-cultural exchanges, creating hybrid cultural forms in food, fashion, music, and more.
Glocalization: Blending of global and local influences, allowing cultures to maintain their uniqueness while embracing external elements.
Technological Advancement and Cultural Awareness
Technology enables instant communication across borders, allowing diverse cultures to share and learn from one another.
Increased exposure to global perspectives leads to greater awareness and appreciation of cultural differences.
Enhanced Cultural Identity
Globalization has also amplified people’s consciousness of their cultural roots, with many individuals working to preserve their traditions and heritage.
Cultural Pluralism: Communities actively retain their unique identities despite being influenced by global trends.
Improved Living Standards and Knowledge Access
Increased access to education and economic growth in many regions has raised living standards, supporting cultural development.
Exposure to democratic and human rights principles has expanded, promoting equality and justice in cultural exchanges.
Negative Impacts of Globalization on Culture
Cultural Homogenization and Loss of Local Identity
Some critics argue that globalization promotes Westernization, particularly through media and entertainment, eroding local cultural identities.
Americanization: The spread of American values and lifestyles, particularly in urban areas, creates a more uniform global culture, risking the loss of diversity.
Cultural Imperialism and Power Imbalances
Dominant cultures, primarily from the West, often overshadow smaller or developing cultures, leading to unequal cultural exchanges.
This cultural imperialism can pressure smaller cultures to adopt the norms and practices of more powerful nations.
Consumerism and Ethical Concerns
Global consumer culture encourages materialism, often targeting youth and turning them into consumers of global brands, which may overshadow local crafts and traditions.
Critics view this consumerism as “soulless,” promoting profit over cultural integrity.
Economic Inequality and Cultural Impacts
Globalization has widened the wealth gap in many areas, with economic benefits often concentrated in developed regions.
Disparities in wealth and resources limit cultural preservation efforts in poorer regions, making it harder for traditional practices to thrive.
Conclusion
Dual Effects: Globalization’s impact on culture is complex, producing both positive cultural diversity and growth as well as risks of homogenization and inequality.
Balancing Act: While it fosters a shared sense of global community and interconnectedness, it also challenges communities to preserve their identities amid external influences.
Future Considerations: Respect for cultural diversity and ethical globalization practices can promote a world where unique cultural identities coexist within a global framework. By embracing globalization responsibly, societies can encourage both unity and cultural richness.
Hyperglobalist
( Short answer)
Efficient Pointer Summary for “Hyperglobalist Perspective on Globalization”
Borderless Economy: Single, global economy transcending national boundaries.
De-Nationalization: Economies integrated through transnational networks, reducing state control.
Consumerism: Global emphasis on individualism, materialism, and secular values.
Single Market: One global market with limited role for local cultures.
Liberal Capitalism: Neoliberal capitalism as the dominant economic model.
End of History: Global capitalism and liberal democracy seen as the final evolution of socio-economic systems.
Mnemonic: “BDCSEL”
Borderless Economy, De-Nationalization, Consumerism, Single Market, End of History, Liberal Capitalism.
Main Answer in Points (500 Words)
Introduction
Hyperglobalism is a perspective on globalization that envisions the world as moving towards a fully integrated global economy where nation-states hold limited economic power.
Prominent hyperglobalists like Kenichi Ohmae and Robert Reich argue that economic forces are reshaping humanity and politics, creating a global society with shared values.
Body
Key Features of Hyperglobalism
Borderless Economy
Hyperglobalists see the economy as transcending borders, forming a single, globalized market without distinct national products or industries.
According to Ohmae, globalization is dissolving traditional economic boundaries, making national economies obsolete.
De-Nationalization of Economies
National governments have a reduced role, serving mainly as facilitators of global capital and trade.
Globalization replaces local control with transnational networks, meaning economic destiny is largely determined by global market forces rather than state policies.
Emphasis on Consumerism and Individualism
A globalized economy promotes secular, individualistic values, emphasizing consumerism and material wealth.
This shift often erodes local cultures and values, favoring a cosmopolitan lifestyle centered around material success and self-reliance.
Single Global Market
Hyperglobalists advocate for a unified global market in which liberal capitalist practices dominate, reducing local variations in economic policy.
The vision includes a “global elite” that aligns with neoliberal values, often sidelining those who resist or cannot access this global economy.
Liberal Capitalism as Dominant Model
Neoliberal capitalism is positioned as the central framework, pushing for free markets, minimal state intervention, and deregulation.
This system promotes profit maximization and global competitiveness as primary values, which some hyperglobalists argue are universally beneficial.
End of History and Global Society
Hyperglobalists view the spread of liberal capitalism and democracy as the “end of history,” the final stage of socio-economic evolution (Stefanovic, 2008).
The global society envisioned is one in which cultural differences fade, and liberal capitalist ideals become universal.
Conclusion
Unified Economic Vision: Hyperglobalists view globalization as a progressive, inevitable process toward a fully integrated global economy.
Cultural and Political Implications: This perspective sees cultural diversity as secondary to economic efficiency and promotes a neoliberal framework as the future’s defining socio-economic model.
Debates and Criticisms: Critics argue hyperglobalism undermines state sovereignty and erodes cultural diversity, while proponents see it as a pathway to prosperity and stability.
World Bank
( Short answer)
Pointer Summary for “International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)”
World Bank Structure: Comprises IBRD and IDA; 189 members; governed by Board of Governors, Executive Directors, and President.
Mandate: Promotes long-term economic development and poverty reduction via technical and financial assistance.
Decolonization and Development: Initial focus on integrating newly decolonized nations into the global economy.
Affiliated Organizations: IFC (1956) funds private projects; IDA (1961) provides favorable loans to poor countries.
Financial Crises and Reform Calls:
1970s: Dollar-gold standard end and oil crises prompt reform discussions.
1997 Asian Crisis: Highlighted IMF’s inefficiencies; led to transparency, regulation, and G-20 reforms.
2008 Global Crisis: Prompted expansion of the FSF to FSB and increased IMF funding.
Governance Issues: Western dominance persists in voting and leadership; reforms lag despite emerging economies’ growing influence.
Demand for Reform: Emerging economies call for fairer representation as their share in global GDP rises.
Main Answer (500 Words)
Introduction
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), part of the World Bank Group, focuses on long-term development, poverty reduction, and financial support for member nations. Alongside the International Development Association (IDA), the World Bank is a key institution in global economic governance.
World Bank Structure and Governance
Membership and Governance: The World Bank has 189 member countries, represented by the Board of Governors, usually finance or development ministers, who set policies. They meet annually, while day-to-day operations are overseen by 25 Executive Directors led by a President with a renewable five-year term. Major decisions include loans, policies, and budgets.
Leadership: Traditionally, the World Bank is led by officials from developed nations, a reflection of Western dominance in its governance structure.
Key Functions and Mandate
Development Mandate: The World Bank provides technical and financial support to aid economic development and reduce poverty. Support is directed towards sectors or projects that contribute to sustainable growth.
Post-Decolonization Role: In the 1950s, it focused on integrating newly independent nations into the global economy. To achieve this, it created organizations like:
International Finance Corporation (IFC) (1956): Provides credit to private projects in developing countries.
International Development Association (IDA) (1961): Offers concessional loans to the poorest nations.
Financial Crises and Institutional Reforms
1970s Economic Instability: The end of the dollar-gold convertibility and oil crises spotlighted flaws in global financial governance, sparking calls for a new Bretton Woods system.
1997 Asian Financial Crisis: This crisis revealed the IMF’s limitations in crisis management, leading to skepticism of its effectiveness. Reforms followed, including:
Establishment of Financial Stability Forum (FSF) to enhance oversight.
Creation of the G-20 for coordinated financial discussions.
Adoption of standards and stronger regulations under the Basel Committee.
2008 Global Financial Crisis: Highlighted further reform needs. The FSF expanded to become the Financial Stability Board (FSB), increasing its membership and mandate, while the IMF received more resources to support crisis-hit economies.
Calls for Reform and Emerging Economies
Representation and Dominance: Advanced economies continue to dominate both the IMF and World Bank, despite emerging economies’ increasing global economic share. While reforms in voting shares were agreed upon in 2010, they were only implemented in 2016 due to delays, particularly from the U.S. Congress.
Economic Shift: Developing countries now contribute more to global GDP, with emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil forming 25% of the global economy. This shift has intensified calls for greater representation for these countries in global financial governance.
Conclusion
The World Bank, despite its crucial role in development and crisis management, faces pressure to reform its governance structure to reflect the modern global economy. Emerging economies continue to advocate for equitable representation, challenging the traditional Western-centric governance of Bretton Woods Institutions (BWIs).
- Explain the reasons of insurgency in North- East India.
Insurgency in North-East India - Summary and Analysis
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Ethnic Identity: Unique cultural, ethnic, and tribal identities.
Political Alienation: Feelings of marginalization and alienation from central governance.
Economic Underdevelopment: Lack of economic growth and infrastructure.
Failed Government Efforts: Ineffectiveness of peace initiatives due to complex factionalism.
Cross-border Safe Havens: Neighboring countries provide refuge to insurgent groups.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
EPEFC: Ethnic Identity, Political Alienation, Economic Underdevelopment, Failed Government Efforts, Cross-border Safe Havens.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
Insurgency in North-East India is a longstanding issue with a complex backdrop involving cultural, political, and economic dimensions.
The challenges in the region stem from a combination of ethnic diversity, geographical isolation, and external influence from neighboring countries, all of which make a stable resolution difficult.
Body:
- Ethnic Identity and Tribal Distinctiveness:
The North-East is home to numerous ethnic and tribal groups, each with a unique culture and strong sense of identity.
Many of these groups, such as the Nagas, have been seeking either complete independence or a high level of autonomy to preserve their cultural heritage, distinct from mainstream Indian society.
This sense of separateness has led to several separatist movements, each with its own agenda and goals, making it challenging to address their concerns collectively.
- Political Alienation and Lack of Representation:
Feelings of alienation are common due to perceived neglect by the central government, which often appears to overlook the political and social aspirations of these communities.
This disconnect has fostered resentment, which insurgent groups exploit to mobilize support and drive their agendas.
The lack of integration into the Indian political and administrative system has intensified the demand for autonomy, further fueling insurgency.
- Economic Underdevelopment and Limited Opportunities:
The region has lagged in economic development compared to the rest of India, with limited infrastructure and employment opportunities.
Poor connectivity and a lack of investment in economic growth have left local communities dependent on insurgent groups, who often promise alternative solutions or financial support.
Economic hardship fuels discontent, pushing people towards insurgent activities as a means to survive or achieve political objectives.
- Failed Government Efforts and Complex Factionalism:
Decades of attempts by the government to resolve the issues through negotiations and peace talks have yielded limited success.
The presence of numerous splinter groups with differing demands complicates peace efforts, as agreements with one group often fail to satisfy others, resulting in continued violence and fragmentation.
Splintering within insurgent movements has led to frequent attacks on security forces, complicating law enforcement and peace-building efforts.
- Cross-border Safe Havens and Foreign Influence:
The North-East shares borders with countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Myanmar, where some insurgent groups find safe refuge.
These border regions enable insurgents to regroup and plan attacks with relative ease, further complicating the task for Indian security forces.
The availability of cross-border sanctuaries underscores the need for diplomatic cooperation with neighboring countries to manage and contain the insurgency effectively.
Conclusion:
Insurgency in North-East India remains a multifaceted issue with roots in identity, politics, and economics, amplified by cross-border dynamics.
Effective resolution requires a multi-pronged approach, including meaningful political engagement, economic development, and international cooperation.
Addressing these root causes holistically and providing avenues for integration and dialogue are essential to achieving long-term peace in the region.
- What is Paris Climate Agreement ? Explain its major features.
Paris Climate Agreement - Summary and Analysis
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Global Action: Agreement emphasizes collective action to combat climate change.
Temperature Goals: Aim to limit temperature rise to 1.5-2°C.
Emission Reduction: Countries set national targets to reduce greenhouse gases.
Transparency: Framework for reporting and accountability on climate actions.
Support for Developing Nations: Financial and technical aid for climate adaptation.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
G-TEST: Global Action, Temperature Goals, Emission Reduction, Transparency, Support for Developing Nations.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
The Paris Climate Agreement, signed in December 2015 at COP21 in Paris, represents a global consensus on addressing climate change.
It was negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), marking a historic commitment by 195 countries to mitigate climate change through cooperative efforts.
Body:
- Global Action on Climate Change:
The agreement underscores the need for a united global response, recognizing climate change as a significant threat driven by human activities.
It calls for collaborative efforts among all nations, rich and poor, to limit the adverse impacts of global warming.
Countries are encouraged to strengthen their commitments over time to make substantial progress.
- Temperature Goals:
One of the primary goals is to keep the global temperature rise well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while striving for a 1.5°C limit.
Scientists warn that exceeding this threshold could lead to catastrophic environmental and societal consequences, including mass extinctions and severe natural disasters.
The agreement sets a global goal to peak greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible and achieve carbon neutrality by the latter half of the century.
- Emission Reduction Commitments:
Each country is expected to establish its own nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining how it plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
These targets vary based on a country’s capabilities, level of development, and historical contribution to emissions.
For example, India committed to reducing its emissions intensity by 33-35% below 2005 levels by 2030 and aims to generate 40% of its electricity from non-fossil fuel sources.
- Transparency and Accountability Framework:
The Paris Agreement includes robust transparency measures to monitor progress, verify emission reductions, and report on climate actions.
Countries must publicly disclose their greenhouse gas inventories and progress toward meeting their targets, allowing for external evaluations.
Developed countries are also required to report on financial assistance provided to help developing nations reduce emissions and adapt to climate impacts.
- Support for Developing Nations:
Recognizing that developing countries are often the most vulnerable to climate change, the agreement includes provisions for financial and technical support to help them adapt and mitigate impacts.
Developed countries committed to mobilizing $100 billion annually by 2020, with an expectation to increase funding after 2025.
This financial support aims to assist small island nations and poorer countries in building resilience to climate change and improving environmental sustainability.
- Progress and Reassessment Every Five Years:
Countries are expected to review and strengthen their NDCs every five years, with the first reassessment occurring in 2020.
This approach allows for progressive ambition, aiming to improve collective action based on technological advancements and environmental needs over time.
Conclusion:
The Paris Climate Agreement represents a landmark global commitment to address climate change through a balanced, flexible approach that considers the differing capacities of nations.
By setting a clear goal to limit global temperature rise, establishing national emissions targets, and fostering transparency, the agreement creates a cooperative framework for reducing global emissions.
While not legally binding in terms of emissions cuts, it relies on peer pressure and collective accountability, hoping to inspire a more sustainable and resilient world.
- Define the concept of economic development. Is
it true that economic development led to environmental degradation ?
Economic Development and Environmental Degradation
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Growth Focus: Economic development prioritized over other aspects.
Globalization: Increased global trade and economic ties.
Western Models: Developing countries emulated Western industrial models.
Resource Depletion: High environmental cost due to exploitation of resources.
Environmental Realization: Awareness of environmental impact arose later.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
GG-WRE: Growth Focus, Globalization, Western Models, Resource Depletion, Environmental Realization.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
Economic development refers to a process where countries focus on improving their economic status, raising the standard of living, and providing better choices and freedom for their citizens.
In the 20th century, this pursuit of economic growth often took precedence over environmental considerations, leading to unsustainable practices.
Many nations saw economic growth as a pathway to modernization, wealth, and global standing.
Body:
- Growth Focus in Development:
During much of the 20th century, economic growth was the central goal for both developed and developing nations.
Countries signed global trade agreements and collaborated to boost production and consumption, viewing economic development as the key to prosperity.
This model emphasized limitless growth and industrial expansion, often without regard for its environmental impact.
- Globalization and Economic Interdependence:
The process of globalization fostered extensive global trade, creating an interconnected world economy.
Countries engaged in sharing resources, technology, and knowledge but also transferred industrial practices that had significant environmental implications.
Globalization made it easier to adopt similar economic strategies worldwide, but often these were not sustainable in the long term, especially for resource-constrained countries.
- Influence of Western Development Models:
Many developing countries modeled their growth strategies on Western industrial practices, seeking to replicate their levels of wealth and development.
Western economic models were often resource-intensive, emphasizing industrial output, and requiring large-scale extraction of natural resources.
Developing countries, in their drive to “catch up,” often faced challenges as they lacked the infrastructure or resources to support such intensive models sustainably.
- Resource Depletion and Environmental Costs:
The pursuit of rapid economic growth led to extensive resource extraction, deforestation, water pollution, and habitat destruction.
Excessive industrialization, encouraged by free-market policies and the demands of a global economy, often spiraled into unsustainable practices.
As industrial activities expanded, critical resources like water, forests, and clean air were depleted, and waste levels soared, causing irreversible environmental harm.
- Environmental Realization and the Global Response:
Over time, awareness grew about the environmental damage caused by unchecked economic development.
Events like the 1972 Stockholm Declaration marked a global acknowledgment of environmental issues, signaling a shift toward more sustainable practices.
The international community recognized the need for sustainable development, balancing economic growth with environmental protection to prevent resource depletion and ecological collapse.
Conclusion:
Economic development, driven by globalization and Western industrial models, prioritized rapid growth, leading to widespread environmental degradation.
Although economic progress has enhanced the quality of life in many regions, it has come at a significant environmental cost, from resource depletion to biodiversity loss.
Today, there is a consensus that economic development must adopt sustainable practices to protect and preserve natural resources for future generations, reflecting the shift toward a more balanced approach between growth and environmental stewardship.
(a) Biological weapons
Biological Weapons Overview
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Definition: Biological weapons use disease-causing agents or toxins (bacteria, viruses, fungi).
History: First used by the British in 1763; Japan used them during WWII.
Composition: Consist of a weaponized agent and delivery mechanism.
Applications: Military, political assassinations, livestock infection, food contamination, and environmental damage.
Delivery Systems: Includes missiles, bombs, spray tanks, and devices for assassinations.
Non-State Actors: Increasing risk of biological weapons being acquired by individuals or terrorist groups.
Global Response: Requires a multi-disciplinary, coordinated, and international approach to detect, respond, and prevent attacks.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
D-H-C-A-D-N-G: Definition, History, Composition, Applications, Delivery Systems, Non-State Actors, Global Response.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
Biological weapons are systems that use natural toxins or infectious agents like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or toxins to harm humans, animals, or plants.
Their purpose is to spread diseases such as anthrax, plague, or smallpox, and cause large-scale health crises.
These weapons have been used historically and pose a growing threat, not just from states but also from non-state actors, including terrorist organizations.
Body:
- Definition of Biological Weapons:
Biological weapons are designed to spread harmful biological agents (pathogens or toxins) that can cause disease or death.
The agents used in these weapons can be naturally occurring or synthetically enhanced for greater lethality, ease of production, and dissemination.
- History and Usage:
Biological weapons have a long history. The first documented use was in 1763, when British officers spread smallpox through infected blankets to Native American tribes.
Modern use includes the Japanese spreading plague-infected lice during World War II.
Despite these early uses, biological weapons have not seen widespread use in modern warfare, though they remain a strategic threat.
- Composition of Biological Weapons:
Biological weapons generally consist of two primary components: a weaponized agent (such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins) and a delivery mechanism (missiles, bombs, or spray tanks).
The agents are often enhanced from their natural state to make them more potent and suitable for mass production, storage, and dissemination.
- Applications of Biological Weapons:
Military: Used to target enemy populations or troops, creating mass illness and death.
Political Assassinations: Agents like ricin or botulinum toxin have been used for targeted killings.
Agricultural Sabotage: Biological weapons can be used to infect livestock or crops, causing food shortages and economic damage.
Environmental Damage: Release of harmful pathogens can lead to environmental catastrophes, threatening ecosystems and biodiversity.
Public Fear: The use of biological weapons creates widespread panic, fear, and distrust among the population.
- Delivery Systems:
Biological weapons can be delivered using a variety of methods: missiles, bombs, grenades, and aerosol spray systems.
There have also been specialized efforts to develop small-scale delivery mechanisms, such as sprays or injection systems for covert use, including assassinations or sabotage.
Delivery systems are designed to maximize the spread and impact of the biological agent, whether in military or covert operations.
- Non-State Actors and the Threat of Biological Weapons:
While states have been the main entities involved in biological weapons development, advances in technology have made it easier for non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations or individuals, to develop or acquire biological weapons.
The 20th century saw criminal use of biological agents for assassination, and terrorist groups increasingly recognize the potential of such weapons.
The proliferation of biological weapons poses a global threat, where distinguishing between natural outbreaks and deliberate attacks is often challenging.
- Global Response and Coordination:
The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) coordinates international efforts to prevent the development and use of biological weapons.
Effective responses to biological threats require a multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach involving global and regional organizations, governments, and the private sector.
Building capacities to monitor diseases can enhance the detection of both natural and deliberate outbreaks, improving global public health and preparedness.
Conclusion:
Biological weapons are a serious threat to human health, security, and the environment, with historical and modern uses demonstrating their potential for widespread harm.
While state actors have historically used biological weapons, advances in technology have increased the risk that non-state actors could develop or deploy them.
A coordinated global response, focusing on early detection, international cooperation, and public health improvements, is essential to mitigate the risks associated with biological warfare and terrorism.
(b) Non-proliferation treaty
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) Overview
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Objective: Prevent nuclear weapons spread, promote peaceful nuclear energy use, and work towards nuclear disarmament.
History: Signed on 1 July 1968 by the US, UK, Soviet Union, and 59 nations; entered into force in 1970.
Signatories: 191 States, including 5 nuclear-weapon states.
Indefinite Extension: The Treaty was extended indefinitely on 11 May 1995.
Safeguards System: Managed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to ensure peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Key Articles:
Article III: States must accept IAEA safeguards to prevent diversion to nuclear weapons.
Article VI: Requires negotiations for nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race.
Article IV: Promotes international cooperation in peaceful nuclear activities without impeding technological progress.
Review Process: Every five years, with challenges in consensus at the 2015 Review Conference.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
O-H-S-I-I-S-A-K: Objective, History, Signatories, Indefinite Extension, Safeguards System, Articles, Key Review Process.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is a vital international agreement aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and advancing nuclear disarmament.
It serves as a cornerstone of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime and is regarded as essential for global security.
Body:
- Objective of the NPT:
The primary aim of the NPT is to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and related technologies.
It also seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy for energy, medicine, and other peaceful purposes.
The treaty’s long-term goal is to achieve nuclear disarmament, working towards reducing the stockpiles of nuclear weapons globally.
- History of the NPT:
Signed on 1 July 1968, with the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and 59 other nations as initial signatories.
The treaty entered into force in 1970, with widespread global support for its objectives.
191 States have ratified the NPT, including the five nuclear-weapon states (the US, Russia, UK, France, and China), marking it as one of the most universally supported arms control treaties.
- Indefinite Extension (1995):
On 11 May 1995, the NPT was extended indefinitely, solidifying its role in global nuclear non-proliferation.
The extension followed extensive negotiations and was a significant step towards international cooperation in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation.
- Safeguards System Managed by IAEA:
The NPT establishes a safeguards system to monitor and verify the peaceful use of nuclear materials.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is tasked with overseeing the implementation of these safeguards, ensuring that non-nuclear-weapon states comply with treaty obligations to prevent the diversion of nuclear energy for weapons purposes.
Article III requires states to accept IAEA safeguards to monitor nuclear activities, including source and special fissionable materials.
- Key Articles of the NPT:
Article III: Requires non-nuclear-weapon states to accept IAEA safeguards, ensuring peaceful use of nuclear energy and preventing its diversion to weapons.
Article VI: Obligates states to pursue good faith negotiations aimed at nuclear disarmament, halting the nuclear arms race, and achieving a comprehensive disarmament treaty.
Article IV: Encourages the peaceful use of nuclear energy while ensuring international cooperation. The article also emphasizes that such cooperation should not impede the economic or technological development of countries.
- Review Process and Challenges:
The treaty includes a review every five years to assess its effectiveness and ensure compliance with its goals. The 2015 Review Conference, however, ended without a consensus outcome, marking a setback in the treaty’s strengthening efforts.
The 2015 lack of agreement was particularly significant given the successful 2010 Review Conference, which included progress on the Middle East Resolution and other action plans.
Preparations for the 2020 Review Conference are underway, reflecting ongoing concerns and efforts to ensure the treaty’s objectives are met.
Conclusion:
The NPT is a critical framework for global nuclear security and disarmament, promoting peaceful nuclear energy use while preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.
Despite challenges in recent review conferences, the treaty remains central to global efforts to manage and reduce nuclear risks.
Continued international cooperation, compliance with safeguards, and efforts towards nuclear disarmament are necessary to strengthen the effectiveness of the NPT in the coming years.
- The waves of globalisation have undermined the
sovereignty and give a new perspective. Explain.
Efficient Pointer Summary (with Keywords)
Sovereignty: Supreme authority over territory, people, and international recognition.
Globalisation: Exerts pressure on state sovereignty through transnational flows, non-state actors, and economic influences.
Kenichi Ohmae: Nation-state has lost control over national economy, rise of region-states.
Giddens: Nations and politicians have lost sovereignty and power to influence.
David Held: Areas where globalisation undermines sovereignty—hegemonic powers, world economy, domestic policy, international organizations, human rights.
International Organisations: IMF, World Bank, NATO, CSTO impose constraints on sovereignty.
Internal Sovereignty: Shifting from state authority to civil society and federating units.
Technological Advances: Empower citizens, diffuse power from state to society.
New Perspective: Sovereignty not eroded, but transformed; non-state actors gain power (World Bank, IMF, EU).
Paul Hirst: Trade/investment economy doesn’t equate to globalisation; nation-states retain importance in governance.
Mnemonic for Keywords:
S-G-K-G-D-I-I-T-N-P: Sovereignty, Globalisation, Kenichi Ohmae, Giddens, David Held, International Organisations, Internal Sovereignty, Technological Advances, New Perspective, Paul Hirst.
Detailed Answer in Pointers
Introduction:
Sovereignty is the fundamental authority that a state exercises over its territory and people, both internally (making laws, enforcing them, and maintaining the monopoly on force) and externally (recognized by other states to ensure territorial integrity).
However, globalisation has increasingly exerted pressure on traditional notions of state sovereignty, introducing new complexities and transforming the role of states in the global order.
Body:
- Impact of Globalisation on Sovereignty:
Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness of states, economies, cultures, and societies, which has led to the diffusion of power and authority.
Kenichi Ohmae argues that the nation-state has lost control over its national economy due to global markets. He suggests that the rise of region-states, communities that cross national borders based on economic centers, exemplifies this shift.
Anthony Giddens supports this view, stating that states have lost their sovereignty and the ability to influence major events. In his view, the nation-state era is over.
David Held identifies five areas where globalisation has undermined sovereignty:
Hegemonic powers and power blocks: The influence of superpowers and military alliances (like NATO, CSTO) limits a state’s foreign and security policy options.
World economy: Economic institutions like the IMF and World Bank exert pressure on states to restructure politically and economically to receive aid or loans.
End of domestic policy: These economic pressures reduce a state’s ability to formulate its own policies without external influence.
International organizations: The rise of international organizations, which involve multi-national actors, has introduced new forms of decision-making that limit state autonomy.
International law and human rights: The recognition of human rights can conflict with national sovereignty, leading to potential international intervention, especially in cases of gross human rights violations.
- Internal Sovereignty and Civil Society:
Internal sovereignty refers to the state’s supreme authority over its citizens and internal affairs.
Globalisation has shifted this internal sovereignty by enhancing the role of civil society, empowering citizens through technological advances like the internet and mobile phones. Citizens are now more active in shaping policies, undermining the state’s traditional monopoly on power.
Pluralist thinkers argue that internal sovereignty is now shared between the state, civil society, and federating units (e.g., regions, local governments), diffusing state power.
- Technological Advances and the New Perspective:
Technological advances—such as the internet and mobile communication—empower citizens and non-state actors, further diluting the central authority of the state. These advances allow information to flow freely, facilitating the rise of non-state actors like multinational corporations, NGOs, and international bodies.
This development recasts the role of state institutions. Sovereignty is not eroded but transformed. While states still hold significant power, they now share authority with global actors like the World Bank, IMF, and European Union.
- Paul Hirst’s Perspective:
Paul Hirst argues that the existence of a globalized economy, marked by high trade and investment, does not necessarily mean full globalisation. States still play a critical role, particularly in economic governance.
He maintains that nation-states remain essential, and as long as they do, sovereignty remains relevant, though its nature and exercise have evolved due to the forces of globalisation.
Conclusion:
Globalisation has transformed the concept of sovereignty, rather than completely undermining it. While states continue to retain significant authority, their capacity to govern without external influence has diminished.
Sovereignty today exists in a multiplicity of actors—nation-states, international organizations, non-state actors, and even civil society groups—that share authority across borders.
The role of nation-states remains crucial, but their power is increasingly interdependent with other global forces, indicating that sovereignty is adapting to the new realities of a globalized world.
- What is the mandate of International Monetary
Fund (IMF) ? Explain the Quota system and
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) of the IMF.
Summary of Key Points:
IMF Mandate: Economic stability, promote trade, reduce poverty.
Quota System: Financial contribution, voting power, access limits.
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs): International reserve asset, currency basket.
Mnemonic (for Summary Keywords):
“ESP – IMF Quotas Support Currencies”
Summary of Key Points:
IMF Mandate: Economic stability, promote trade, reduce poverty.
Quota System: Financial contributions, voting power, borrowing limits, economic representation.
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs): International reserve asset, currency basket, liquidity support.
Mnemonic (for Summary Keywords):
“ESPT – IMF Quotas Ensure Currencies’ Stability”
Full Answer:
Introduction:
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a global financial institution established to support international monetary cooperation and global economic stability.
Its core goals are to promote trade, reduce poverty, and safeguard economic stability across its member nations.
The IMF’s main tools for achieving its mandate include a Quota System, which defines each member’s financial role and influence, and Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), an asset created to supplement member countries’ reserves.
Body:
- IMF Mandate:
Promote Global Economic Stability: The IMF seeks to maintain economic stability by providing policy advice, financial support, and technical assistance to member countries, especially in times of economic difficulty.
Facilitate International Trade: The IMF encourages open and balanced trade relations, which it sees as vital to economic growth and global prosperity.
Economic Surveillance: The IMF regularly monitors economic and financial conditions in member countries, providing analyses and recommendations through “Article IV Consultations” to promote policy adjustments that sustain growth.
Reduce Poverty: Through poverty reduction programs, particularly in low-income countries, the IMF offers tailored financial support to help nations stabilize and develop.
Crisis Prevention & Management: The IMF plays a critical role in helping countries manage and prevent financial crises by offering emergency funds, especially through mechanisms like the Rapid Financing Instrument.
Research & Data: The IMF produces extensive research and global economic data, enabling governments to make informed decisions and understand worldwide economic trends.
- Quota System:
Financial Contributions: Each member country contributes financially to the IMF based on its economic size and capacity. This contribution, known as the quota, serves as both a financial and political investment in the institution.
Voting Power: Quotas determine each member’s voting rights in the IMF, creating a balance where larger economies have more voting influence while all members retain a baseline level of power.
Borrowing Limits: The quota system determines the amount a country can borrow from the IMF relative to its quota. This borrowing capacity is structured to address balance-of-payments issues and economic shocks.
Economic Representation: Quotas also reflect members’ relative economic standing in the global economy, impacting representation on the IMF Executive Board.
Regular Review & Adjustment: Quotas are periodically reviewed to reflect shifts in the global economy, allowing emerging economies to gain representation and to ensure the IMF’s resources match global financial needs.
Special Assistance Programs: The quota system enables special assistance packages, like concessional financing, which are extended to countries in dire need on more favorable terms.
- Special Drawing Rights (SDRs):
International Reserve Asset: SDRs were created as an international reserve asset to supplement IMF members’ official reserves, helping to bolster financial resilience.
Currency Basket Composition: SDRs derive their value from a weighted basket of five major international currencies: the U.S. dollar, euro, Chinese renminbi, Japanese yen, and British pound, providing a stable global asset.
Allocation Based on Quotas: SDR allocations to each country are proportional to its IMF quota, meaning larger economies receive more SDRs, reflecting their economic size and global impact.
Liquidity Support & Crisis Resilience: Countries can use SDRs to bolster their financial stability in crises, as SDRs can be exchanged for freely usable currencies to address balance-of-payments issues.
Flexible Usage for Member States: Member countries can leverage SDRs not only for liquidity but also for debt management and strengthening foreign reserves, enhancing economic stability.
Cost & Return Mechanism: The IMF charges a modest fee on SDR holdings above a member’s allocation, incentivizing countries to use SDRs judiciously.
Conclusion:
The IMF’s mandate is centered on economic stability, trade promotion, and poverty alleviation, supporting long-term prosperity across diverse economies.
Through the Quota System and SDRs, the IMF ensures that member contributions and financial resources are both equitable and effective.
Ongoing Reforms and Representation Needs: Developing and emerging economies continue to advocate for greater representation, aligning with their growing economic contributions to the global economy.
As the global economy evolves, the IMF adapts its systems and policies to maintain relevance, supporting sustainable growth and stability for member countries worldwide.
- Write a note on the efforts of UN in the conservation of environment.
Summary of Key Points:
1972 Stockholm Conference: First global environmental conference; led to the creation of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).
Post-Stockholm Developments: Treaties on dumping, pollution, endangered species.
1987 Brundtland Commission: Defined sustainable development in “Our Common Future.”
1992 Rio Earth Summit: Adopted Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, and CBD.
2002 Johannesburg Summit: Reviewed progress, emphasized sustainable development commitments.
Mnemonic (for Summary Keywords):
“Stockholm UNEP Treaties Brundtland Rio Johannesburg”
Full Answer:
Introduction:
The United Nations (UN) has played a crucial role in environmental conservation, with landmark initiatives aimed at sustainable development.
Beginning with the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the UN’s environmental efforts have expanded through major summits and agreements that engage global participation in addressing ecological challenges.
Body:
- 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment:
Significance: The first international conference on environmental issues, held in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5–16, 1972, attended by delegates from 114 countries.
Principles and Sovereignty: The Stockholm Declaration set forth 26 non-binding principles, including Principle 21 which emphasized each state’s right to exploit its resources but with a commitment to avoid harming the environment.
Creation of UNEP: The conference led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a key UN agency for coordinating international environmental efforts and developing environmental laws.
Impact on India: Following the conference, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi initiated several environmental policies, notably influenced by the Chipko Movement, which halted commercial tree felling.
- Post-Stockholm Environmental Agreements:
International Treaties: The post-Stockholm period saw the development of key environmental treaties, such as:
1972 London Dumping Convention: Regulated ocean dumping to prevent pollution.
1973 MARPOL Convention: Targeted pollution from ships.
1973 CITES: Aimed to protect endangered species from over-exploitation through trade.
1985 Vienna Convention: Focused on protecting the ozone layer, later leading to the Montreal Protocol.
1989 Basel Convention: Controlled the movement and disposal of hazardous waste across borders.
- 1987 Brundtland Commission:
Formation: Established in 1983 by the UN General Assembly, the World Commission on Environment and Development, led by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, aimed to develop long-term environmental strategies.
Sustainable Development: The Brundtland Commission’s report, Our Common Future (1987), defined sustainable development as meeting “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
Global Influence: This report raised awareness of sustainable development, setting the stage for future global environmental initiatives.
- 1992 Rio Earth Summit (UNCED):
Event and Participation: Held from June 3–14, 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with 178 countries, over 1,400 NGOs, and significant media presence.
Rio Declaration: A declaration of 27 principles on environmental protection and sustainable development, emphasizing cooperation and participation from states, NGOs, and indigenous communities.
Agenda 21: A comprehensive, non-binding action plan with 40 chapters addressing various issues, including poverty, health, sustainable agriculture, water resources, and land use. It called for technological support and funding for developing countries.
Key Treaties:
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Addressed climate change through voluntary commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, later leading to the Kyoto Protocol.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Focused on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
- 2002 Johannesburg Summit:
Objective: The World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, aimed to review progress on the commitments made at the Rio Earth Summit and strengthen global resolve on sustainable development.
Challenges: Despite highlighting the importance of sustainable development, the summit struggled with a lack of political will, leading to more discussions but limited binding commitments.
Ongoing Issues: Issues such as environmental degradation, resource scarcity, and climate change remained significant, with participants calling for improved action and accountability from nations.
Conclusion:
The UN’s environmental conservation efforts reflect a commitment to fostering a balance between economic growth and ecological preservation.
Landmark conferences like Stockholm, Rio, and Johannesburg have defined global approaches to sustainable development, resulting in frameworks and treaties that shape environmental policies worldwide.
Although challenges persist, these summits represent essential steps toward collective environmental action, aiming for a future where development is compatible with the health of our planet.
(a) Terrorism
Pointer Summary: Key Elements of Terrorism
- Definition Ambiguity: No agreed definition, often overlaps with political violence.
- Fear Factor: Core element; creates widespread fear, not just direct harm.
- Shock Value: High-profile, dramatic attacks for maximum impact.
- Civilian Targets: Predominantly targets innocent civilians, flouting legal norms.
- Political Pressure: Intended to pressure governments toward specific goals.
- Types & Contexts: Diverse motivations; includes nationalism, religion, anti-colonialism.
- Modern Tech: Advanced weaponry enhances terrorism’s lethality.
- International Scope: International presence; threats of WMD use.
- Notable Groups: LTTE, al-Qaeda, Hamas, Red Army Faction.
- US GWOT: Launched after 9/11, controversial for human rights issues.
Mnemonic for Keywords: “DF-SCP-TMING”
Answer to “Terrorism”
Introduction
Definition Ambiguity: Despite terrorism’s significant impact, there is no universally accepted definition, complicating its identification and response. It overlaps with other forms of political violence, often becoming a “weapon of the weakest.”
Core Elements: The key aspects of terrorism include fear, shock, civilian targeting, and political pressure. This distinguishes it from traditional and guerrilla warfare, as terrorism primarily aims to terrorize rather than achieve conventional military victories.
Body
- Fear Factor: Terrorism’s primary purpose is to instill fear among the general public. The threat is often more significant than the actual violence, as it affects a broad audience beyond the immediate victims. Encyclopedia Britannica notes that terrorism’s potency lies in its fear factor, which impacts public morale and psychological well-being.
- Shock Value: Terrorist acts are typically high-profile and unexpected, with calculated targets that maximize media coverage and public impact. Tactics include bombings, hijackings, and suicide attacks. These acts are designed to appear omnipresent, reinforcing the terrorist group’s image as both potent and elusive.
- Civilian Targets: Unlike traditional warfare, terrorism frequently targets civilians, viewing them as means to political ends. This defiance of legal norms—particularly against noncombatants—is a defining characteristic, often condemned universally, as “One man’s terrorist is everyone’s terrorist.”
- Political Pressure: Terrorism aims to create social fear that pressures governments or groups toward specific actions, whether policy shifts or regime changes. The political intent behind terrorism is a core motivator, distinguishing it from crime or insurgency.
- Types & Contexts: Terrorism spans across various contexts, from nationalist movements to religious extremism. In the 20th century, anti-colonial struggles, national conflicts, and ideological clashes often employed terrorism, as seen in Algeria, Ireland, and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.
- Modern Technology: Innovations in weaponry, communication, and mobility have amplified terrorism’s reach. Remote explosives, automatic weapons, and digital communications have increased lethality and operational scope, as seen in attacks like the 1995 Tokyo subway nerve gas attack and 2001 anthrax incidents.
- International Scope: Terrorism today has a global presence, often transcending national boundaries with concerns over potential access to weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear and biological agents. The international community remains wary, recalling incidents like the 1995 Tokyo subway gas attack by AUM Shinrikyo.
- Notable Terrorist Groups: Historical and modern examples include the LTTE in Sri Lanka, which was known for suicide bombings, and al-Qaeda, known for orchestrating the 9/11 attacks. Groups such as Hamas and the Taliban also use terrorism tactics to achieve regional objectives, demonstrating terrorism’s adaptability across ideologies.
- US Global War on Terrorism (GWOT): Following the 9/11 attacks, the US launched a comprehensive, controversial anti-terror campaign. It involved extensive military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as covert operations worldwide, raising questions about human rights and civil liberties.
Conclusion
Persistent Threat: Despite international efforts to contain it, terrorism remains a persistent global threat. Modern technologies, ideological fervor, and geopolitical factors continue to fuel terrorism’s evolution, while the lack of a unified definition complicates countermeasures. The US’s GWOT exemplifies both the scale of counter-terrorism efforts and the ethical dilemmas involved, showing that terrorism is as much a security issue as it is a challenge of international law and human rights.
(b) PARIS AGREEMENT
Pointer Summary:
Global Commitment: 195 countries at COP21 agreed on urgent climate action
Human Cause & Threat: Human activities drive climate change, affecting life and ecosystems
Temperature Goals: Limit warming to 1.5–2°C, avoid catastrophic effects
Mitigation Targets: Emission reduction through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Accountability: Transparent reporting, periodic goal review every five years
Support for Developing Nations: Financial aid, capacity-building for resilience
Paris vs Kyoto: Broader scope, voluntary targets, and emphasis on transparency
Mnemonic: GHT MAS PS
- Global Commitment
- Human Cause & Threat
- Temperature Goals
- Mitigation Targets
- Accountability
- Support for Developing Nations
- Paris vs S Kyoto
500-Word Answer (with Pointer Format):
Introduction:
The Paris Climate Agreement, adopted at the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) under the UNFCCC in December 2015, stands as a global framework uniting 195 countries to mitigate climate change through coordinated emission reductions and adaptation strategies.
The agreement acknowledges that human activities are central to climate change and that its impacts threaten ecosystems, human health, and socio-economic stability worldwide.
Body:
- Global Consensus on Human Impact & Urgency:
Climate change is primarily driven by human activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation), leading to rising levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O.
Rising temperatures alter weather patterns, intensify droughts, storms, and heatwaves, and impact biodiversity, with consequences such as increased cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and rising sea levels endangering coastal communities and low-lying nations.
- Temperature Goals: Limiting Warming to 1.5–2°C:
The agreement targets a global temperature rise of “well below” 2°C, aiming for a safer 1.5°C limit to reduce catastrophic effects like mass extinction and severe droughts.
Nations must achieve carbon neutrality by the latter half of the 21st century to meet these goals.
- Emission Reduction through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs):
186 countries have outlined NDCs to reduce emissions, with strategies tailored to their development level and capacity. For instance, India aims to reduce emissions by 33–35% of 2005 levels by 2030 and reach 40% non-fossil fuel electricity.
While NDCs are voluntary and self-set, they reflect a collective commitment to mitigate climate impact.
- Transparency and Accountability Measures:
The agreement mandates monitoring, reporting, and evaluation of progress toward targets, with outside experts reviewing the effectiveness of each country’s efforts.
Countries are encouraged to submit revised targets every five years, enhancing ambition over time.
Developed nations must outline financial assistance plans to support developing countries, addressing adaptation and emission reduction challenges.
- Support for Developing Nations:
Developing countries, while low contributors to emissions, face the harshest impacts of climate change. The Paris framework supports these nations through financial aid and capacity building.
A minimum of $100 billion annually was pledged by 2020 to help vulnerable regions adapt to climate impacts, with plans to scale up by 2025.
- Paris vs. Kyoto Protocol:
Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which focused on legally binding targets for developed nations, the Paris Agreement adopts a voluntary approach where all nations, regardless of economic status, contribute through NDCs.
It emphasizes transparency and periodic assessment without penalties, aiming for collaborative global progress rather than binding commitments.
Conclusion:
The Paris Agreement represents a comprehensive and inclusive approach to combating climate change, blending global commitment, national accountability, and support for vulnerable nations.
Despite ambitious goals, current pledges are insufficient to keep warming below 1.5°C, underscoring the need for increased efforts. The structure, however, fosters long-term engagement and offers hope for gradually achieving global climate resilience through collective action.
- Explain the aspects of changing global power
distribution and rising capabilities of the
emerging economies.
( Isme extra points add hua hai)
Pointer Summary:
Shift in Power: Decline of Western dominance, rise of multipolarity
Emerging Economies: BRICS and other nations gaining economic strength
Economic Growth: GDP growth, industrialization, and global trade influence
Technological Advancements: Digitalization and innovation capabilities
Geopolitical Influence: Expanded roles in global governance and regional stability
Challenges & Cooperation: Competition with developed economies, need for cooperation
Mnemonic: S E E T G C
- Shift in Power
- Emerging Economies
- Economic Growth
- Technological Advancements
- Geopolitical Influence
- Challenges & Cooperation
Expanded 500-Word Answer with Additional Points
Introduction:
The global distribution of power has been transforming as emerging economies grow in economic, technological, and geopolitical influence.
This shift away from a unipolar, Western-centric order has introduced a multipolar world, with countries like China, India, and Brazil playing more significant roles in shaping global governance and trade.
Body:
- Shift in Power Dynamics: From Western Dominance to Multipolarity
The previous dominance of Western nations, particularly the U.S. and European powers, is now being balanced by the economic and political clout of emerging economies.
This shift has diversified global influence, allowing nations outside the traditional Western bloc to gain substantial sway over key global issues.
- Emerging Economies as New Power Centers
The BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) represent a substantial share of global GDP and population, contributing significantly to global growth.
Other emerging economies, such as Mexico, Indonesia, and Turkey, are also expanding their roles in the global economy and international diplomacy.
- Economic Growth and Increased Global Influence
The high GDP growth rates in emerging economies have allowed them to make substantial investments in infrastructure, industry, and international trade.
The rise in foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to and from these economies is reshaping global supply chains and trade routes, positioning these nations as essential hubs in global commerce.
- Technological Advancements and Innovation Capabilities
Many emerging economies are leading in technological innovation, including digital finance (such as India’s UPI), electric vehicles, and solar energy.
Investment in research and development (R&D), particularly in China, has propelled these nations into competition with Western economies in tech-heavy industries.
- Geopolitical Influence and Role in Global Governance
Emerging economies are more active in multilateral organizations, such as the G20, where they contribute to decision-making on global economic issues.
Initiatives like China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) have expanded the geopolitical influence of emerging economies by building trade routes and infrastructure that connect Asia, Africa, and Europe.
- Expansion in Military Capabilities
Nations such as China and India have significantly increased their defense budgets and capabilities, aiming to secure their regions and assert global influence.
This growth has led to new dynamics in global security, with emerging powers taking more active roles in regional peacekeeping and defense.
- Soft Power and Cultural Influence
Emerging economies are expanding their cultural reach through soft power, such as global media (e.g., Bollywood), education, and cultural diplomacy.
Organizations like Confucius Institutes (China) and India’s cultural missions worldwide are fostering influence through cultural exchange and language programs.
- Environmental Leadership and Climate Action
Emerging economies are increasingly vocal on environmental issues, with nations like China and India advocating for equitable climate policies.
Many have committed to ambitious renewable energy targets and carbon reduction goals, aiming to balance economic growth with sustainability.
- Challenges and Need for International Cooperation
Emerging powers often face challenges such as balancing rapid growth with social and economic inequality within their borders.
Collaboration with developed countries is essential for tackling global challenges, including climate change, cybersecurity, and global health crises, which require cooperative solutions.
Conclusion:
The shift in global power distribution marks a transition from a Western-dominated order to a more multipolar world shaped by emerging economies.
This evolving landscape presents challenges and opportunities, with rising powers contributing to economic, technological, and geopolitical developments.
As these nations grow in influence, their active participation and collaboration with traditional powers will be essential in addressing the pressing global issues of the 21st century.
