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Biology and Society > Unit 7 Exam Study Guide > Flashcards

Unit 7 Exam Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

Our immune system protects us from _______.

A

pathogens

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2
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause disease. Your immune response helps to protect you from pathogens and cancer cells.

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3
Q

What are examples of pathogens?

A

Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.

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4
Q

Pathogens cause disease by infecting a ____.

A

host

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5
Q

What are three ways in which a pathogen can infect a host?

A
  1. Some pathogens infect a host without getting inside cells.
  2. Others, including all viruses and many bacteria, get inside host cells and multiply.
  3. When pathogens multiply they can destroy host cells.
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6
Q

How do viruses get inside host cells?

A

By binding to proteins on a cell membrane.

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7
Q

What does the immune system consist of?

A

It consists of organs, cells, and molecules.

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8
Q

What is the first defense against pathogens?

A

Barriers to infection are the first defense from pathogens.

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9
Q

What happens once pathogens are in your body?

A

Once pathogens are in your body, your immune cells are called into action.

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10
Q

Which organ produces immune cells?

A

Lymphoid organs produce or contain large numbers of immune cells.

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11
Q

What are immune cells also called?

A

Immune cells are also called white blood cells.

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12
Q

True or false: There are many kinds of immune cells.

A

True

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13
Q

Where do immune and red blood cells come from?

A

All immune cells and red blood cells come from stem cells inside the bone marrow. They are constantly replaced.

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14
Q

Immune cells have _______ in their cell membrane.

A

receptors

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15
Q

What are receptors in immune cells?

A

Think of a receptor as an antenna on top of the cell that receives different signals. The cell does something in response to that signal.

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16
Q

Immune cell receptors recognize ________.

A

antigens

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17
Q

What are antigens?

A

In the case of immune cells, the signal of a foreign substance binding to the cells’ receptor is called an antigen. Ex. pathogens

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18
Q

What is the immune response?

A

When immune cells’ receptors recognize an antigen, then immune cells can take different actions.

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19
Q

The immune response can make you feel ____.

A

sick

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20
Q

What are cytokines?

A

One of the responses of immune cells is to produce chemicals called cytokines. Cytokines kill pathogens and cells infected with pathogens.

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21
Q

Cytokines can cause…

A

a fever, aches, and pains.

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22
Q

There are two phases of immune response:

A
  1. The innate response
  2. The adaptive response
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23
Q

Each phase of immune response involves ___________.

A

different immune cells

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24
Q

Which type of immune response is more immediate?

A

Innate immune response

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25
Q

Which type of immune response is more powerful?

A

Adaptive immune response

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26
Q

What are two reasons why the innate immune response is immediate?

A
  1. Receptors on innate immune cells recognize antigens that are part of many types of pathogens.
  2. Some innate immune cells, called phagocytes, ingest pathogens.
  3. They also release cytokines to attack other immune cells to the infection.
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27
Q

Some phagocytes active the ___________.

A

adaptive immune response

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28
Q

What three steps does a phagocyte take to activate the adaptive immune response?

A
  1. When some phagocytes ingest a pathogen, they “spit up” a piece of the pathogen on their surface.
  2. This piece of pathogen is called an antigen.
  3. It’s like a signal on top of the immune cell that can activate cells of the adaptive immune response.
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29
Q

Part of the adaptive immune response are the ________.

A

activated T cells

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30
Q

What two things do T cells do?

A
  1. T cells activate B cells.
  2. T cells kill cells infected with the pathogen.
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31
Q

What do Activated B cells do?

A

Activated B cells make more of themselves and produce antibodies.

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32
Q

How do Activated B cells destroy pathogens?

A

Antibodies bind to a specific antigen on a pathogen. Antibodies destroy the pathogen and prevent pathogens from attacking more cells.

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33
Q

The adaptive immune response is _________ for a particular pathogen.

A

specific

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34
Q

The adaptive immune system produces ________ which prevents the ______ from ______________.

A

antibodies, virus, infecting more cells

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35
Q

The adaptive immune system has ______.

A

memory

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36
Q

What are memory cells?

A

After the pathogen is cleared the number of immune cells go back down to baseline levels, but some T and B cells specific for that pathogen stay in the body.

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37
Q

_________ don’t need to be _________ by the ____________.

A

Memory cells, reactivated, innate immune response

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38
Q

If your immune response isn’t sufficient to destroy a pathogen, you may need _______.

A

medicines

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39
Q

What are three factors that affect immune response?

A
  1. How much pathogen got into your body.
  2. Your existing immunity (ex. memory cells).
  3. The strength of your immune system (ex. sleep, nutrition, age).
40
Q

True or false: Are antibiotics an effective medicine for viral infections?

A

False

41
Q

What are six factors (three each) of innate vs adaptive immune responses?

A

Innate
1. Immediate
2. Non-specific
3. Doesn’t have memory cells

Adaptive
1. Takes longer to develop for the first infection.
2. Specific for a particular pathogen.
3. Forms memory cells to remember a pathogen.

42
Q

Vaccines mimic a _______________.

A

primary immune response

43
Q

Vaccines provide an ________ to the body.

A

antigen

44
Q

What accurately contrasts vaccines and antiviral medicines?

A

Vaccines can provide long-term immunity, while antivirals are generally for short-term treatment of viral infections.

45
Q

Some vaccines require you to take a second dose or booster. Why?

A

The initial dose often doesn’t stimulate a sufficient long-term immune response, so a booster helps to reinforce and prolong immunity.

46
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When enough individuals in a population are immune to an infection the pathogen is less likely to spread. This is called herd immunity.

47
Q

_________ protects those who cannot be vaccinated?

A

Herd immunity

48
Q

_________ is the only infectious disease that has been __________.

A

Smallpox, eradicated

49
Q

Once _________ is reached, a disease can disappear from a population or even be _________.

A

herd immunity, eradicated

50
Q

What is the measles vaccine?

A

The measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine is a whole virus vaccine, which means that it contains weakened viruses that normally cause no symptoms or only very mild ones.

51
Q

What are the typical symptoms of measles?

A

Measles causes high fever, cough, runny nose, and rash all over the body.

52
Q

What are the severe symptoms of measles?

A

Some children will develop encephalitis (swelling of the brain) that can lead to confusion and can leave the child deaf or with intellectual disability.

53
Q

What is autism (3 ideas)?

A
  1. Autism is a spectrum of differences in the ways in which people behave, communicate, interact, and learn.
  2. Some people need a lot of support in their daily lives and some people don’t need any.
  3. Symptoms may be noticed when children are receiving vaccines.
54
Q

What three factors increase the likelihood of a child being diagnosed with autism:

A
  1. Lack of oxygen at birth.
  2. Advanced age of parents.
  3. Other siblings with ASD (genetics).
55
Q

Autism is influenced by ________________.

A

many genes and the environment

56
Q

Why has the diagnosis of autism been rising?

A

There is an increase in diagnoses. At least in part due to increased awareness, broader diagnostic criteria, and acceptance.

57
Q

How does HIV infect the body?

A

HIV infects and destroys T cells. Overtime, if untreated, it causes immunodeficiency (AIDS = acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

58
Q

What is an antiviral drug against HIV?

A

HAART (highly active anti-retroviral therapy) is a cocktail of 3 drugs that target virus-specific proteins.

59
Q

What are allergies?

A

Allergies are immune responses to harmless substances in the environment that cause an immune response.

60
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

Immune response to your own body.

61
Q

What are three factors that cause an autoimmune disease?

A
  1. Antigens are found not only on pathogens but also on most cells.
  2. Your body’s own antigens are called self-antigens.
  3. An autoimmune disorder occurs when a person’s immune system mistakenly attacks their own self-antigens.
62
Q

What is transplant rejection?

A

It’s an immune response to organs. When a person receives an organ transplant the immune system will attack it- this is called rejection.

63
Q

What is immunodeficiency?

A

It’s a weak immune response. (Ex. Cancer, HIV, chemotherapy)

64
Q

What are the two main parts of our nervous system? What are they composed of?

A
  1. Central Nervous System (CNS)= brain+spinal cord
  2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- all other nerves in the body
65
Q

Nerve cells are ___________.

A

specialized cells

66
Q

What are nerve cells?

A

Nerve cells are designed to rely information super fast.

67
Q

What are three types of neurons?

A
  1. Sensory neurons
  2. Motor neurons
  3. Inter-neurons
68
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

They gather information from the environment.

69
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

They control the contraction of muscles.

70
Q

What are inter-neurons?

A

Lie entirely within the central nervous system.

71
Q

What recognizes the neurotransmitter on the receiving neuron?

A

A receptor in the cell membrane.

72
Q

How do neurons primarily communicate with each other?

A

By releasing chemical signals called neurotransmitters across a gap called the synapse.

73
Q

How does information travel?

A

Information travels as electrical and chemical signals.

74
Q

How fast does information travel in a neuron?

A

Within a neuron, information travels super fast as an electrical signal.

75
Q

What does information travel as between neurons?

A

Between neurons, information travels as chemical signals.

76
Q

How fast does an electrical signal have to be?

A

The electrical signal is extremely fast. It has to be strong enough to travel to the end of a neuron.

77
Q

The chemical signal involves ________________.

A

neurotransmitters

78
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

When an electrical signal reaches the end of a neuron, the neuron releases chemicals called neurotransmitters which bind to receptors on neurons close by.

79
Q

What’s the purpose of a neurotransmitter?

A

The neurotransmitters create an electrical signal in the next neuron.

80
Q

What are the two types of signals neurotransmitters can create?

A
  1. Excitatory
  2. Inhibitory
81
Q

What are excitatory and inhibitory signals?

A
  1. Excitatory- send a signal
  2. Inhibitory- Shut down a signal
82
Q

What are the two ways in which neurons communicate?

A
  1. Messages are sent through a neuron electrically and between neurons chemically.
  2. Purpose of a neuron is to send messages to different parts of the body.
83
Q

What happens at the synapse level when you engage in pleasure-inducing stimulus?

A

When you experience a pleasure-inducing stimulus, neurons in certain parts of the brain release dopamine.

84
Q

What happens when the pleasure-inducing stimulus has passed?

A

The signal is then shut down. Once the stimulus has passed, neurons remove dopamine from the synapse and recycle it.

85
Q

What are inhibitory signals?

A

Inhibitory signals from other neurons keep dopamine from being released.

86
Q

How do addictive drugs increase dopamine signaling?

A

Typically, dopamine increases in response to natural rewards such as food. When cocaine is taken, dopamine increases are exaggerated, and communication is denied.

87
Q

What does a drug like cocaine do?

A

It increases dopamine release and blocks dopamine removal.

88
Q

How do drugs become addictive?

A

With constant high dopamine levels, the brain reduces the number of dopamine receptors and increases dopamine clearance.

89
Q

What is tolerance?

A

When dopamine receptors are reduced and there’s an increase in dopamine clearance, the body needs more dopamine to feel pleasure. This is called tolerance.

90
Q

Why do we have a reward mechanism?

A

The reward mechanism is an evolutionary adaptation. The reward mechanism evolved in an environment of scarcity. Now we are surrounded by dopamine-inducing stimuli.

91
Q

What are opiate-neurotransmitters (endorphins)?

A

Many different neurons and different parts of the brain receive and send back signals when there’s a sensation of pain. The brain produces endorphins to block pain signals sent from the brain to the body and slow down breathing and cause drowsiness.

92
Q

What are two types of pain medications?

A
  1. Non-opioid medications
  2. Opioid medications
93
Q

What are non-opioid medications?

A

Non-opioid medications, like aspirin, or Tylenol, act at the site of pain. They are not addictive.

94
Q

What are opioid medications?

A

Opioid medications are substances that act like endorphins. They are addictive.

95
Q

What are four changes opioid use may cause?

A
  1. Reducing pain signals
  2. Releasing large amounts of dopamine.
  3. Slowing down breathing
  4. Causing drowsiness
96
Q

What are the symptoms of opioid withdrawal?

A

Opioid withdrawal will result in muscle aches, restlessness, vomiting, diarrhea, and other severe symptoms.

Biology and Society (7 decks)

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