Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biology and Society > Unit 2 Exam Study Guide > Flashcards

Unit 2 Exam Study Guide Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is correlation?

A

Correlation is any statistical relationship, whether causal or not, between two random variables.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is causal?

A

When one variable causes the other variable to change, that is a causal relationship.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

True or false: some correlations are obviously meaningless.

A

True. Ex. Divorce rates in Main declined at a similar rate as the consumption of margarine per capita.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Scientists established a correlation between what two things?

A

Smoking and cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Lung cancer was rare in 1900, but by 1940, it was becoming…

A

the most common cancer diagnosed in American men.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

From 1920-1940, scientists tested four different hypotheses for what was causing lung cancer:

A
  1. More Pollution
  2. Street pavement products like asphalt
  3. Chemicals used in WW1
  4. Tobacco use
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What two types of studies were conducted to establish a causal relationship between cigarettes and lung cancer?

A
  1. Observational studies
  2. Experimental studies
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

By the _____ the evidence was clear that cigarette smoking was causing cancer.

A

1950s

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Several _____________ issued ___________ about the risk of cancer from smoking.

A

professional associations (ex. American Heart Association, American Cancer Society), consensus statements

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is consensus?

A

Consensus in science is a position held by most scientists in a particular field and at a particular time. Based on best available evidence.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What was the purpose of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee (1954)?

A

They hired scientists who said the results (tobacco causing lung cancer) were controversial.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What were four of the Tobacco Industry Research Committee’s claims?

A
  1. Not all scientists agreed
  2. Not everyone who smokes develops lung cancer
  3. Scientists don’t know how smoking causes lung cancer.
  4. Scientists have not proven that smoking causes lung cancer.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Some areas of science, _____________, have a lot of scientific debate.

A

particularly emerging science

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Over time some areas of emerging science…

A

can become more settled, and consensus builds.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

A few areas in science where there is little debate among scientists (ex. strong consensus)…

A

have generated a lot of controversy in society.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are three ways to find the scientific consensus?

A
  1. Reliable news sources will show broad general agreements in science.
  2. Scientific journals publish peer-reviewed papers discussing the level of consensus on an issue.
  3. Professional societies will publish “consensus statements” on their discipline’s topic.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

_____________ can make recommendations.

A

Government agencies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

In _____, the ___________ put out a report based on a summary of all available evidence between smoking and lung cancer.

A

1964, US Surgeon General

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What two factors did the US Surgeon General’s report conclude?

A
  1. The main cause of the increase in lung cancer was smoking tobacco.
  2. Smokers were 10 to 20 times more likely to get lung cancer than nonsmokers.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What are three ways in which the US Surgeon General’s recommendations affect society?

A
  1. Restrictions on smoking in public spaces.
  2. Labels on cigarette packages.
  3. Restrictions on advertising.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

In _____, about ___ adults smoked cigarettes.

A

2020, 12.5%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What are case-control studies?

A

Case-control studies are observational studies. Compare groups of people who have a condition to people without; looking for risk factors.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is an experimental study?

A

Hypothesis-driven controlled experiments that allow scientists to change variables.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is a prospective cohort study?

A

Is a type of observational study. Prospective means that they follow individuals to see what happens to them in the future.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What is a Meta Analysis?

A

Meta-analysis is a type of study that examines data from many different independent studies.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What is an anecdote?

A

A person’s story from personal experience; unreliable. However, anecdotal evidence may inspire scientific questions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Cancer is a ________________ caused by ___________.

A

Cancer is a group of diseases caused by uncontrolled cell division.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Cancer starts when…

A

a cell loses control of cell division.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

A cell that keeps dividing will…

A

form a mass of cells that all keep dividing.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What functions does a growing mass (cancer) disrupt?

A

It disrupts the functions of organs, produces toxins, takes up nutrients, and spreads to other tissues.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Cancers are characterized by…

A

where they start.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is the cell type that starts the cancer called?

A

The primary cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What are the cancers called where the cancer spreads?

A

The secondary cancers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

True or false: Cells make up all organisms.

A

True

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

True or false: All cells come from other cells.

A

True

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Cells are ___________ (which means that cells can perform all of life’s functions).

A

the smallest unit of life

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What are scientific theories?

A

They are broad explanations of natural phenomena. They are supported by a lot of evidence.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What are hypotheses?

A

They are possible explanations that can be tested. Evidence can either support or reject a hypothesis.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the seven properties of life:

A
  1. Obtain and use energy (fuel) (photosynthesis/cellular respiration)
  2. Respond to stimuli in the environment (cells respond to infection)
  3. Maintain homeostasis (regulation) (cell membrane regulates what gets in/out)
  4. Reproduction/pass on genetic information (DNA) (cells can divide)
  5. Grow and develop (cells turn into specialized cells)
  6. Evolve (cells fight bacteria)
  7. Order
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

___________ of living organisms evolve (change) over generations.

A

Populations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What are the two categories of cells?

A

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What are prokaryotic cells? Where are these cells found?

A
  1. Unicellular organisms
  2. Much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
  3. Ex. bacteria, archaea
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What are eukaryotic cells? Where are these cells found?

A
  1. Unicellular and multicellular organisms
  2. Ex. Plant cells, animal cells, yeast, algae
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

True or false: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells all look different but have similar basic structures.

A

True

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Because eukaryotic cells are bigger than prokaryotic cells, they have “___________” or _________.

A

compartments, organelles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Cells developing in organisms that are capable of dividing and becoming any cell in the body are called stem cells.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What is the process of differentiation?

A

Stem cells can become any cell in the body through a process called differentiation.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Differentiated (___________) cells make different proteins.

A

specialized

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Different genes are turned _____ in different cell types.

A

on/off

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

True or false: Some organisms have a lot of stem cells as adults.

A

True

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

True or false: A virus cannot do anything outside a cell.

A

True

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

True or false: A virus is a cell

A

False. A virus is NOT a cell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Viruses contain genetic information in the form of ____ or ____.

A

DNA, RNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

A virus cannot divide, cannot use energy and grow, it cannot change over time _________.

A

unless it infected a cell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Viruses hijack ____ functions

A

cells’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

A virus uses a cell’s machinery (________ and _______) to make more copies of itself.

A

enzymes, ribosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

A virus can _____ (change) over time into different ______.

A

evolve, strains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

What is order as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Living organisms are highly organized structures that consist of one or more cells. Inside each cell, atoms make up molecules, and molecules make up cell components or organelles.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

What is response to stimuli as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli in their environment. (Ex. plants bend toward source of light, tiny bacteria move toward/away from chemicals).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

What is reproduction as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

A single-celled organism reproduces by dividing into two new cells. The DNA of an organism is passed to offspring. This is why offspring have similar characteristics to the parent.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Many _____________ organisms (those made up of more than one cell) produce _______________ (called _______) that combine to form new individuals.

A

Many multicellular organisms (those made up of more than one cell) produce specialized reproductive cells (called gametes) that combine to form new individuals.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What is growth and development as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Organisms grow/develop according to DNA. These instructions are encoded in segments of DNA called genes. Multicellular organisms grow through cell division.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

What is regulation/homeostasis as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Refers to the stable internal environment required to maintain an organism’s survival. Organisms require mechanisms to coordinate internal functions. (Ex. polar bear regulating constant body temp, systems carrying oxygen throughout the body)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

What is obtain/use energy as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Organisms need a source of energy to power activity and matter to build cells. (Ex. capture energy from sun to convert into chemical energy, organisms using chemical energy from cells they take in).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

What is evolution as it pertains to the properties and process of life?

A

Is the process by which populations change over time. When variations are inherited, individuals with characteristics of survival/reproductive advantage in an environment are more likely to pass down genes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

What are evolutionary adaptations?

A

Over time, the population will change to have more of the evolutionary characteristics. Characteristics that make organisms well-suited to their environments are evolutionary adaptations.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Living things follow a ____________ on a scale from small to large.

A

hierarchy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

What is an atom?

A

The atom is the smallest unit of matter and retains the properties of an element.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

What is a molecule?

A

Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by a chemical bond.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

What is an example of a molecule?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Some cells contain aggregates of large molecules surrounded by membranes, which are called __________.

A

organelles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

What are organelles?

A

Organelles are small structures that exist within cells and perform specialized functions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

All living things are made of ______; _________ itself is the smallest fundamental unit of life.

A

cells, the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Some organisms consist of a __________ and others are ____________.

A

single cell, multicellular

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

What are tissues?

A

In most multicellular organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out the same function.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

What are organs?

A

Organs are collections of tissues grouped together based on a common function.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

What is an organ system?

A

An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

What are organisms?

A

Organisms are individual living entities.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Single-celled organisms are typically referred to as ______________.

A

microorganisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

What is a population?

A

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. Ex. all the pine trees of a forest represent the population of white pine trees. Different populations may live in the same area.

81
Q

What is a community?

A

A community is a set of populations inhabiting a particular area. Ex. all trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community.

82
Q

What is an ecosystem?

A

An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with abiotic factors.

83
Q

What is the biosphere?

A

The biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on Earth. Ex. land, water, portions of the atmosphere.

84
Q

Order the levels of organization of living things from smallest to largest.

A

Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissues, organs, organ system, organisms, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere.

85
Q

Just as the atom is _____________, the cell is __________.

A

the smallest unit of matter, the smallest unit of life

86
Q

All living organisms are made of _____ and single cells exhibit _____________.

A

cells, the properties of life

87
Q

What is cell theory?

A

Cell theory states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all new cells arise from existing cells.

88
Q

True or false: Eukaryotes can be either unicellular or multicellular.

A

True. (Ex. Yeast is a unicellular organism, a dog is multicellular).

89
Q

All cells (prokaryotic and eukaryotic) share four common components:

A
  1. A plasma membrane (cell membrane)
  2. Cytoplasm
  3. DNA
  4. Ribosomes
90
Q

What is a cell membrane?

A

An outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment.

91
Q

What is cytoplasm?

A

Consisting of the jelly-like substance that fills the cell in which other cellular components are found.

92
Q

What is DNA?

A

The genetic material of the cell.

93
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Particles that synthesize proteins.

94
Q

What are components of prokaryotic cells? What do they lack?

A

It’s a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of a prokaryotic cell. Many prokaryotic cells also have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.

95
Q

What is a cell wall?

A

It’s a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell.

96
Q

What are the components of eukaryotic cells?

A

It’s a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions.

97
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

It houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes.

98
Q

In eukaryotes, the DNA in the nucleus of a cell is…

A

divided into segments called chromosomes.

99
Q

Every species has a specific number of __________ in the nucleus of its body cells.

A

chromosomes

100
Q

What is the mitochondria?

A

Mitochondria are called the “powerhouses” of a cell because they are responsible for converting chemical energy in nutrients to cellular energy (ATP).

101
Q

A cell typically contains several ______________.

A

mitochondria

102
Q

Mitochondria are ___________, __________ organelles that have their own _________ and ___.

A

Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA.

103
Q

Like mitochondria, ___________ also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

A

chloroplasts

104
Q

Although mitochondria are found in both _______ and ______ cells, ________ are found only in organisms that can perform ______________, such as ________ and _______.

A

Although mitochondria are found in both animal and plant cells, chloroplasts are found only in organisms that can perform photosynthesis, such as plants and algae.

105
Q

In photosynthesis, _________, _____, and __________ are used to make _______ and ______.

A

In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and oxygen.

106
Q

What are chloroplasts?

A

Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight.

107
Q

Like plant cells, ______________ also have __________.

A

photosynthetic protists, chloroplasts.

108
Q

Some bacteria also perform ___________, but they do not have __________. Their photosynthetic pigments are located within the cell itself.

A

photosynthesis, chloroplasts

109
Q

What is symbiosis?

A

Symbiosis is a relationship in which organisms from two separate species live in close association.

110
Q

What is endosymbiosis?

A

Endosymbiosis is a relationship in which one organism lives inside the other.

111
Q

Scientists have long noticed that ________, _________, and __________ are similar in size and have other similar features.

A

bacteria, mitochondria, chloroplasts

112
Q

In the 1950s and 1960s, scientists discovered that __________ and __________ have their own ___ and __________, just as bacteria do.

A

In the 1950s and 1960s, scientists discovered that mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, just as bacteria do.

113
Q

Cell membrane: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Present in all three

114
Q

Cytoplasm: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Present in all three

115
Q

Nucleus: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Only present in animal and plant cells.

116
Q

Ribosomes: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Present in all three.

117
Q

Mitochondria: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Only present in animal and plant cells.

118
Q

Cell wall: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Present in prokaryotes (not in archaea) and present in plant cells (primarily cellulose)

119
Q

Chloroplasts: Is it present in prokaryotes, animal cells, and/or plant cells?

A

Only present plant cells.

120
Q

Bacterial cells divide to make more of themselves (____________).

A

reproduce

121
Q

One cell copies its ____, which carries the _________ for building and running the cell.

A

DNA, instructions

122
Q

After copying its DNA, then the cell _____ to produce ___________ (ex. from one organism to two organisms).

A

divides, two identical cells

123
Q

Human and other __________ organisms have _______ of cell division.

A

multicellular, two types

124
Q

What are the two types of cell division in multicellular organisms?

A
  1. To produce lots of body cells (somatic cells) from one initial cell.
  2. To produce gametes (egg and sperm) which will combine to produce a new organism.
125
Q

What are the three purposes of the somatic (body) cell division process?

A
  1. Cells divide for us to grow from one cell to many.
  2. When we stop growing, cells divide to repair damaged tissues or replace dead cells.
  3. In somatic cell division one cell divides into two identical cells.
126
Q

What are the steps of the somatic (body) cell division process?

A
  1. G1 (Cell growth): the cells grow
  2. S (DNA synthesis): The cell doubles its DNA
  3. G2 (DNA error check): The cell grows some more and repairs any errors in DNA
  4. Mitosis: The cell divides
127
Q

What is the Resting State (G0) of the cell cycle?

A

Cells can also exit the cell cycle and enter a Resting State called G0. Specialized cells are usually in G0.

128
Q

What three factors determine the rate at which cells divide?

A

Different cells divide at different rates. The rate depends on your body’s need for that cell type, the span of that cell type, and how many of that cell type you have.

129
Q

Cancer is a disease of…

A

too much cell division.

130
Q

Cancer starts with one body cell with a ________ that loses control of cell division.

A

mutation

131
Q

What are mutations?

A

Mutations are changes in a cell’s DNA.

132
Q

Mutations can happen when…

A

a cell copies its DNA in the DNA synthesis phase (they are like typos).

133
Q

Most mutations don’t do anything but some mutations can affect ______.

A

genes

134
Q

Chromosomes contain _____.

A

genes

135
Q

What are genes?

A

Segments of DNA that determine our characteristics are called genes.

136
Q

What do most genes carry?

A

Most genes carry instructions (code) for making proteins, which build and run our cells.

137
Q

Order the components of a chromosome from smallest to largest.

A

Protein, gene, chromosome

138
Q

____________ in genes can cause changes in proteins.

A

Mutations

139
Q

Which component of a chromosome has a mutation?

A

Protein, gene (mutation occurs), chromosome

140
Q

Why are humans more likely than elephants to get cancer?

A

P53 encodes a “checkpoint” protein. Elephants have 40 copies of the p53 gene whereas humans have 2 copies of the p53 gene on chromosome 17.

141
Q

Each pair of the genes are generally the same length and carries the same genes (except for ______________).

A

the sex chromosomes

142
Q

Checkpoint proteins regulate __________.

A

cell division

143
Q

What is the purpose of checkpoint proteins?

A

Some checkpoint proteins normally tell the cell to divide (to replace a dead cell). Some tell it to stop dividing (no more cells are needed/cell is damaged).

144
Q

If a cell has damaged DNA…

A

checkpoint proteins stop it from going to the next step in the cell cycle (G0).

145
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

A cell stops dividing, the damage is repaired. If the damage can’t be repaired, the cell self-destructs (apoptosis).

146
Q

There are two main types of genes that code for checkpoint proteins. They fall into which two categories?

A

Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

147
Q

What are proto-oncogenes?

A

Proto-oncogenes produce proteins that tell the cell to divide.

148
Q

What are tumor suppressor genes?

A

Tumor suppressor genes produce proteins that tell the cell to stop or slow down cell division.

149
Q

What happens when proto-oncogenes mutate?

A

Mutations in proto-oncogenes cause the proteins to become overactive.

150
Q

When a proto-oncogene is mutated, what is it called?

A

It’s called an oncogene. They’re capable of transforming a regular cell into a cancer cell.

151
Q

What happens when tumor suppressor genes mutate?

A

Mutations in tumor suppressor genes inactivate the protein.

152
Q

P53 is a…

A

tumor suppressor gene

153
Q

What are three ways in which p53 controls cell division?

A
  1. p53 tells the cell to stop dividing to repair its mutations or self-destruct.
  2. If you have a mutation in one copy of p53, you still have the other one that works.
  3. If both p53 copies are mutated the cell might divide uncontrollably.
154
Q

Risk estimates for cancer and other diseases are determined by studying _____________ and _____________.

A

large groups of people, calculating averages

155
Q

What are two ways in which risk is communicated?

A

Absolute risk and relative risk.

156
Q

What is absolute risk?

A

The absolute value. For cancer, it’s often a lifetime risk. (Ex. 12 out of 100 men will develop prostate cancer).

157
Q

What is relative risk?

A

A comparison rather than an absolute value. (Ex. the risk of lung cancer for smokers is 25 times higher than for non-smokers).

158
Q

Cancer develops as…

A

many mutations accumulate.

159
Q

A cell with mutations will start to divide more and _______________.

A

accumulate more mutations

160
Q

As cells accumulate more and more mutations…

A

cells become more abnormal. Eventually, cancer cells invade other issues.

161
Q

What are two reasons age is a major risk factor for cancer?

A
  1. Age is a major risk factor for cancer partly because the cells of older people will have accumulated more mutations.
  2. Repair mechanisms and the immune system may not function as well.
162
Q

Why is family history a major risk factor for cancer?

A

Someone can inherit a mutated copy of a gene (Ex. BRCA1).

163
Q

Why are infections a major risk factor for cancer?

A

Several viruses are known to increase the risk of cancer in humans.
Some viruses insert their DNA/RNA into the host cell and cause the host cells to lose control over cell division.

164
Q

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common _________ in the world.

A

sexually transmitted virus

165
Q

Some _____ of HPV can cause cancer. They contain ___________.

A

strains, oncogenes

166
Q

What are the main four risk factors that cause cancer?

A
  1. Age
  2. Family history
  3. Lifestyle
  4. Infections
167
Q

All the _________ cause mutation to DNA, which are ultimately the cause of _____.

A

risk factors, cancer

168
Q

What five factors do doctors look for in a cancer diagnosis?

A
  1. Where the cancer and possibility for surgery?
  2. How fast cancer cells are dividing (mitotic index)?
  3. How big is the cancer?
  4. Have cancer cells moved to other parts of body?
  5. What are the genetic mutations in cancer cells?
169
Q

What are three purposes of performing surgery on cancer?

A
  1. It’s the oldest treatment.
  2. Remove cancer cells from the body
  3. Works when cancer is solid and all in one place
170
Q

What is chemotherapy?

A

It’s a drug treatment that uses powerful chemicals to kill all fast-dividing cells in your body.

171
Q

What are the three steps in which radiation therapy works?

A
  1. High energy X-rays and gamma rays are pointed at the cancer.
  2. Damages and kills healthy and cancer cells.
  3. Often given together with chemotherapy.
172
Q

What is targeted therapy?

A

Doctors design treatments that target specific proteins present in cancer cells but not healthy cells.

173
Q

What is immunotherapy?

A

Immunotherapy “trains” immune cells in the body to target specific cancers. Immune cells can recognize abnormal cancer and kill it. Less damage to healthy cells.

174
Q

What are four factors to early detection/prevention:

A
  1. HPV vaccine
  2. Minimize exposure to cancer-causing agents
  3. Healthy lifestyle
  4. Screenings
175
Q

What are three characteristics common to all life forms?

A

Reproduction, growth, and development

176
Q

What is a genome?

A

A cell’s complete set of DNA is called a genome.

177
Q

Most genes contain the instructions (___) for the cell to make proteins; another way of saying this is mat most genes ___ for proteins.

A

code, code

178
Q

The ____ consists of a series of carefully timed and regulated phases of growth, DNA replication, and division.

A

cell cycle

179
Q

The cell cycle has two major phases _________ and the _______- that can be divided into smaller phases.

A

interphase, mitotic phase

180
Q

What happens during the interphase of the cell cycle?

A

The cell grows and DNA is replicated.

181
Q

What happens during the mitotic phase of the cell cycle?

A

The replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are divided equally among the two new cells.

182
Q

What steps of the cell cycle are part of the interphase?

A

G1, S, and G2

183
Q

What steps of the cell cycle are part of the mitotic phase?

A

Mitosis phase

184
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

Is the process in which the cytoplasm is divided between the two new cells.

185
Q

Where are the “checkpoints” located during cell division?

A

Near the end of G1, near the end of G2, and during the mitosis transition.

186
Q

What happens at the G1 checkpoint?

A

Makes sure cell is grown enough for cell division and that there are no errors with DNA.

187
Q

What happens at the G2 checkpoint?

A

These mechanisms assess whether all the DNA is properly duplicated.

188
Q

What happens at the M checkpoint?

A

Regulatory mechanisms monitor whether the chromosomes are properly positioned and attached to the cell’s spindle apparatus (pulls paired chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell).

189
Q

Eukaryotic unicellular organisms (yeast) reproduce by proceeding through the ______. Prokaryotic organisms (bacteria) reproduce by a simpler process called _________.

A

cell cycle phases, binary fission

190
Q

What are the rules for using human cells and tissues in research?

A

A study has to go through a review process and participants have to provide “informed consent” to participate (Common Rule).

191
Q

What does the Common Rule not apply to?

A

It doesn’t apply to cells or tissues removed during medical procedures. Scientists can use leftover tissues/cells if the patient’s identity is removed.

192
Q

What is a randomized controlled trial?

A

Used to test treatments in a large study.

193
Q

What is a case report or case series study?

A

Studies a single person or several people without a comparison group (control).

194
Q

What are animal and laboratory studies?

A

Experiments that do not involve humans; very important for understanding mechanisms.

195
Q

How does information in DNA result in proteins?

A

Through transcription and translation.

196
Q

What is transcription?

A

Making an mRNA copy of a gene on DNA in the nucleus.

197
Q

What is RNA?

A

RNA copies and translates genetic codes to build these proteins.

198
Q

What is translation?

A

Turning the copied mRNA into protein by decoding the mRNA at the ribosome.

199
Q

What is an epidemiological study?

A

The study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why.

Biology and Society (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions