unit 6 - language thought & communication Flashcards
describe Piaget’s theory of COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT and its 4 main elements
this theory concerns how our thinking develops
he believes learning happens by developing schemas about the world
language depends on though - children develop language by matching the correct word to their knowledge (though and understanding first -> language develops after)
young children - children only understand words when they have reached the correct stage of development and are ready - they can use language without understanding before but not EFFECTIVELY
development of language - at the sensorimotor stage children speak towards the end of their first year
from 2 years old (preoperational stage) they talk about things not present
logical thinking - concrete operation stage - by age 7 children’s language becomes mature and logical as they question things and create their own ideas
give three brief evaluation points of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
STRENGTH - early language is not random
WEAKNESS - challenged by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
WEAKNESS - a schema can’t be scientifically measured
describe one strength of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
early language is not random
when children start talking they use two word phrases such as mummy sock (CROMER), showing that they can see how two objects are related to one another
this suggests that children only start to use language when they have some understanding of it
describe two weaknesses of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
challenged by the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
this states that language comes before though as people need a word or phrase for an object in order to be able to think about it
suggests that Piaget may have been wrong therefore
a schema cannot be scientifically measured
this makes it very difficult to know if a schema exists if it can’t be directly measured
this shows that Piaget’s theory of language and though is not based on solid scientific evidence
describe the Sapir Whorf hypothesis and its 4 main elements
Sapir and Whorf suggested that it is not possible to think about something you don’t have words for
thinking depends on language - language comes FIRST and thought AFTERWARDS
there are two versions of the hypothesis - one says that words determines language and the other that words influence it
strong version - language determines thought - if there are no words for something then you can’t think about it which is why it is difficult to translate ideas from one language to another
weak version - words help to ‘carve’ up the world but you can still imagine something without a word for it
preferred version? - the weaker version is preferred
give three brief evaluation points of the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
STRENGTH - the hypothesis explains the link between language and intelligence
WEAKNESS - differences between cultures may have been exaggerated by Boas (Inuit study guy)
WEAKNESS - having more words for snow doesn’t mean that the words came first
describe one strength of the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
the hypothesis explains the link between language and intelligence BERNSTEIN suggested that working class children will fall behind in school because of their use of restricted code which a negative effect on their ability to think this shows that language influences a particular type of thinking
describe two weakness of the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
the differences between cultures may have been exaggerated by BOAS
there are really only two words for snow in Inuit culture and actually English has other words for different types of snow (eg. sleet, slush, blizzard, flurry)
this shows that the differences aren’t that great and challenges the conclusion that language may determine though
having more words for snow doesn’t mean that the words came first
the Inuit language may have more words for snow because there is always a lot of snow
this suggests that language develops because of the way we perceive our environment which supports Piaget’s view that thinking influence language
who did Whorf study?
Native Americans, the Hopi
describe what Whorf found about variation in the Hopi’s language
Whorf found that Hopi language doesn’t distinguish between past, present and future
therefore this influences the way they think about time
give one evaluation of Whorf’s study of the Hopi
WEAKNESS
only one individual was studied
other have argued that the way the Hopi language describes the passing of time is not that different to European language
this suggests that Whorf’s conclusions lacked a firm factual basis
who studied how language affects the recall of events
Carmichael et al.
describe what Carmichael studied
Carmichael et al. gave two groups of participants the same pictures but each group heard different descriptions
when they were asked to draw them, the picture drawn reflected the labels they had heard
this suggests that language influences memory
give one evaluation of Carmichael et al.’s study
WEAKNESS
the materials used were ambiguous
in everyday life we would be less influenced by labels
so we ay not be able to generalise the results to everyday life
who did Brown and Lenneberg study
Native Americans, the Zuni people
describe what Brown and Lenneberg found about variation in the recognition of colours with the Zuni people
Brown and Lenneberg found that the Zuri people have only one word for shades of yellow and orange and had difficulty recognising and recalling these colours compared to English speakers
this suggests that their lack of words for those two colours affected their ability to distinguish between them
give one evaluation of Brown and Lenneberg’s study
WEAKNESS
research on different cultures is that there are issues with the interpretation of participants’ responses
the language barrier could have affected how well the Zuni people communicated their understanding of colour to the researchers
this causes the research to lack validity
who did Roberson et al. study?
the Berinmo people of New Guinea
describe what Roberson et al found about variation in the recall of colours with the Berinmo people
Roberson et al. found that the Berinmo people of New Guinea had difficulty recalling and distinguishing between a variety of colours as they only have FIVE words for different colours in their own language
this is evidence for the Sapir Whorf hypothesis as it suggested that specific cognitive processes are influenced by language
give one evaluation of Roberson et al.’s study
WEAKNESS
some researchers have found the opposite
the Dani people have only two words for colour but were still as good as English speaking participants on a colour matching task (HEIDER AND OLIVIER)
this suggests that their lack of colour words did not influence their ability to think about colour
who studied animal communication in terms of bees
Von Frisch
aim of Von Frisch’s bee study
to describe the dances performed by honey bees to explain how they communicate information with each other
method of Von Frisch’s bee study
Von Frisch put a food source close to the hive (10-20 metres away) as well as one further away (up to 300m)
he made over 6000 observations of honey bees over 20 years
results of Von Frisch’s bee study
worker bees tell others where the pollen is located by two types of dance
round dance - moving in a circle to indicate the food is less than 100m away
waggle dance - moving in a figure of 8, waggling its abdomen in the middle of the eight and this straight line pointing to the source of the pollen
the speed of the dance indicated distance (faster - closer)
60% of bees went to food sources at the distance indicated by the dances
conclusions of Von Frisch’s bee study
bees use a sophisticated form of animal communication
the signalling system has evolutionary value as it helps their survival
give three brief evaluation points of Von Frisch’s bee study
STRENGTH - important contribution to science
WEAKNESS - importance of sound was overlooked
WEAKNESS - bees didn’t always respond to the waggle dance
describe one strength of Von Frisch’s bee study
Von Frisch’s work made an important contribution to science
people knew that bees danced but had no understanding of the meaning of the movements
this shows how valuable his research was
describe two weaknesses of Von Frisch’s bee study
the importance of sound was overlooked
ESCH found that when bees performed the dance in silence, the other bees would not go on to investigate food dources
this shows that sound based signals also play a part in directing other bees which Von Frisch did not consider
bees do not always respond to the waggle dance
bees do not use the information from the waggle dance to fly to nectar if it was placed in a boat in the middle of a lake (GOULD)
this shows that Von Frisch’s account was incomplete
4 functions of animal communication
survival
reproduction
territory
food
describe survival as a function of animal communication and give an example
vervet monkeys use sound to warn of danger using alarm calls - a specific sound warns other monkeys close by
rabbits use visual signals, lifting their tail high, pinning ears back and leaping forwards to communicate danger
these signals increase survival of members of the signaller’s species
describe reproduction as a function of animal communication and give an example
animals use mating displays
mating displays communicate genetic fitness through brightly coloured and plentiful feathers
peacocks stretch their feathers in an umbrella to attract females
describe territory as a function of animal communication and give an example
animals mark territory through spreading scents
rhinos produce 20-30 piles of dung to communicate that an area is occupied
this has evolutionary value as it takes less energy than fighting (which can also be dangerous)
describe food as a function of animal communication and give an example
animals use signals to show the location of food
ants leave a pheromone (chemical which an animal releases) trail to communicate the location of a food source
give three properties of human communication that are not present in animal communication
planning ahead and discussing future events
creativity in terms of open and closed systems
single versus multiple channels
explain planning ahead and discussing future events as a property of human communication and not animal communication
humans can use their language to plan ahead and discuss future events (displacement)
in contrast, animal communication tends to focus on things that are physically present in the environment
therefore, displacement is not a part of animal communication in the same way as in human communication
explain creativity in terms of open and closed systems as a property of human communication and not animal communication
animal communication involved a CLOSED SYSTEM as gestures, sounds, movements only refer to specific events
human language is an OPEN SYSTEM as words can be combined together in an infinite number of ways to have infinite meanings
human communication has endless potential so is creative
explain single versus multiple channels as a property of human communication and not animal communication
human language can be expressed using a whole range of different CHANNELS such as spoken, written, sign, emoji and other types found on social media
this is not a feature of animal communication which tends to use single channels such as pheromones (chemicals that animals produce)
verbal communication
any communication involving spoken or written words
non-verbal communication
all communication not involving spoken or written words such as body language, facial expressions or eye contact
eye contact
when two people look at each other’s eyes at the same time
what are the three main roles of eye contact in non verbal communication
regulating flow of conversation
signalling attraction
expressing emotion
explain the role of eye contact in regulating flow of conversation
KENDON found that speakers looked away when they were about to speak and gave prolonged eye contact when about to finish
shows eye contact encourages turn taking in conversation
explain the role of eye contact in signalling attraction
CONWAY ET AL. found that people who use eye contact are judged to be more attractive even with a negative facial expression
they concluded that eye contact is an evolutionary behaviour that signal attraction to a potential mate
our level of eye contact may also increase when we are up close or talking to someone we like
explain the role of eye contact in expressing emotion
ADAMS AND KLECK found that participants judged emotions of joy and anger as more intense when shown a picture of someone gazing straight at them as opposed to gazing away
they judged emotions of fear and sadness as more intense when the gaze in the picture was averted
body language
communication through unspoken movements and gestures
what are three main examples of body language
open/closed posture
postural echo
touch
explain the role of open and closed posture
closed posture - crossing you arms and/or legs communicating rejection or disagreement
open posture - arms and legs uncrossed, communicating approval or acceptance
MCGINLEY ET AL. found that participants were more likely to change their opinions in line with a female confederate if she adopted and open posture when discussing her views
explain the role of postural echo
postural echo - copying each others body position
TANNER AND CHARTRAND found that participants had more positive feelings towards a new drink if the researcher had used postural echo during the interview
explain the role of touch
touch in a social interaction includes high fives, slapping, putting a hand on a shoulder
FISHER ET AL. found that students handed books by a librarian who touched them on the hand were more positive about the librarian than those who were not touched
give three brief evaluation points of eye contact studies
STRENGTH - studies can explain an important feature of autism
WEAKNESS - use of rating scales to make judgements (biased evidence)
WEAKNESS - studies of eye contact involve quiet artificial tasks
describe one strength of eye contact studies
studies can explain an important feature of autism
people with autism have difficulty communicating with others because they do not use eye contact
knowing the importance of eye contact means that people with autism could be taught these skills
describe two weaknesses of eye contact studies
rating scales were used to make judgements
studies in this area rely upon people rating their views of ‘attractiveness’ and ‘intensity of emotion’ and these are open to bias as well as interpretation
studies of eye contact may therefore produces biased evidence
studies of eye contact involve quiet artificial tasks
in Kendon’s study, participants were asked to get to know someone as part of the experiment
this means that the results may lack validity as they do not reflect what would happen in everyday life
give three brief evaluation points of body language studies
STRENGTH - the research can be applied to real world situations
WEAKNESS - the studies were not always well controlled
WEAKNESS - research in this area raises ethical issues
describe one strength of body language studies
the research can be applied to real world situations
people who are trying to create a good relationship with others should use an open posture postural echo and touch
this shows that the research can be useful in everyday life
describe two weaknesses of body language studies
studies were not always well controlled
FISHER ET AL’s study in the library there may have been other reasons why the participants liked or disliked the librarian aside from the presence or absence of touch
this is a problem for the validity of results
research in this area raises ethical issues
field experiments on postural echo and touch involved a lack of informed consent and it is unclear whether participants were debriefed afterwards
this could affect people’s trust in psychologists
personal space
the distance we keep between ourselves and others
we feel uncomfortable when it is invaded and try to defend it by moving away
what are three main factors affecting personal space preferences
cultural differences
gender differences
status differences
explain cultural differences in personal space
SOMMER found that English people’s personal space is 1-1.5m whereas Arabs is much less.
COLLETT found that Englishmen who stood closer and gave more eye contact were better liked by Arabs
explain gender differences in personal space
men prefer a larger social distance when interacting with men than women talking to other women
FISHER AND BYRNE found that women felt more uncomfortable when a confederate invaded their personal space from the side - men felt uncomfortable when approached from the front
explain status differences in personal space
status is someone’s rank within society or the workplace
ZAHN found that people with a similar status maintain closer personal space than those of unequal status.
give three brief evaluation points of personal space studies
STRENGTH - this research has proved useful in everyday life
WEAKNESS - research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time
WEAKNESS - studies may use unrepresentative samples
describe one strength of personal space studies
this research proves useful in everyday life
for example. doctors could use knowledge about cultural differences to make patients feel more comfortable and lawyers avoid offending people
therefore it has a positive impact on the real world
describe two weaknesses of personal space studies
research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time
in reality several factors may be affecting personal space distances at the same time such as culture, gender and status
this makes research in this area too simplistic
studies may use unrepresentative studies
it is difficult to use a sample of people in a personal space experiment that reflects all people within a culture, or all males and all females
this means we should be cautious in generalising the results to everyone
describe the 4 main points of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
theory of natural selection - the genes for any behaviour that improves an animal’s chances of survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to the next generation
non-verbal behaviour is evolved and adaptive - non verbal behaviour has evolved in animals as a way of expressing emotion
for examples baring teeth in a fight causes animals to get scared and leave so there is no fighting and the animals are more likely to survive - the behaviour is therefore adaptive (helping to protect the survival of a species)
comparison with human behaviour - opening your eyes wide indicated surprise because it has developed from animal behaviour where animals under threat open eyes wide to see an escape route and avoid danger
serviceable habits - behaviours that were adaptive to our ancient ancestors such as wrinkling the nose and baring teeth, continue to be in use to show how we feel but may not serve the original adaptive purpose
give three brief evaluation points of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
STRENGTH - supported by research into facial expressions
STRENGTH - supported by research with newborn babies/ neonates
WEAKNESS - struggles to explain cultural differences in non-verbal communication
describe two strengths of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
the theory is supported by research into facial expressions
EKMAN ET AL identified six primary emotions ; surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness and sadness that are found in all people
if a behaviour is universal , this suggests that it is in our genes and therefore Ekman’s evidence supports the evolutionary theory
it is also supported by research with new born babies/neonates
babies are born with the ability to smile or maintain eye contact which suggests that because these behaviours are present at birth, they are innate
if they are innate, this supports the idea that they have been selected by evolution to help the child’s survival
describe one weakness of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
Darwin’s theory struggles to explain cultural differences in non verbal communication
personal space and gestures are expressed in different ways in different cultures which suggests that we are not biologically the same
this suggests that the theory doesn’t explain all non-verbal communication
neonate
a new born baby
what are two principal pieces of evidence for non verbal behaviour being innate
neonate research
sensory deprivation
describe how neonates act as evidence for non verbal behaviour being innate
social releasers - there are non verbal behaviours such as smiling which make others want to look after babies (BOWLBY)
this is adaptive because it means that a young baby will be looked after, survive and the genes passed
facial expressions - ROSENSTEIN AND OSTER found that young babies’ faces showed disgust at novel foods like citric acid, in lemons
this suggests such facial expressions as a way of communicating emotions are innate
describe how sensory deprivation provides evidence for non verbal behaviour being innate
if an animal or human without a sensory ability such as hearing or sight, shows the same non verbal behaviour as people with normal hearing or vision this suggests that the behaviours are innate
THOMSON found similarity in blind children and children with normal vision in terms of facial expression such as surprise
what is the main piece of evidence for non verbal behaviour being learned ; and the two forms it can take
cultural differences - gestures, contact or non contact cultures
cross cultural research
comparing behaviours between cultural groups
if they are different, this suggests that they are learned rather than innate
describe how contact and non contact cultures provide evidences for non verbal behaviour being learned
one cultural difference in non verbal behaviours is in terms of personal space
people from contact cultures (the mediterranean and latin america) are comfortable with smaller personal space
people from non contact cultures (uk and usa) maintain a larger distance between themselves and others, viewing people who give less personal space as overbearing (HALL)
this shows that non verbal behaviour may not be innate but a product of cultural norms
describe how gestures provide evidence for non verbal behaviour being learned
BLACK found that pointing one’s index finger is acceptable in Western culture to emphasise what one is saying but is offensive in Hindu culture where one tends to point with one’s thumb
this shows that non verbal behaviour may not be innate but a product of cultural norms
how could the differences between cultures be explained by social learning theory
social learning theory says that people learn by observing and imitating the behaviour of people around them, especially those who they identify with
eg. behaviours are picked up from members of a community by being observed and then imitated
who compared cultural understanding of non verbal behaviours to find out if it is universal or learned
Yuki’s study of emoticons
aims of Yuki’s study of emoticons
to find out if there is a difference in how emoticons are understood by people in the east, Japan, and the west, America
method of Yuki’s study of emoticons
95 students from Japan and 118 students from America (independent groups)
six emoticons were shown with different combinations of eyes and mouths (sad, neutral or happy)
participants rated them for happiness using a 9 point scale
results of Yuki’s study of emoticons
Japanese participants gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes, even when the mouth was sad, than Americans
American participants gave higher ratings to faces with happy mouths, even when the eyes were sad
conclusion of Yuki’s study of emoticons
cultural groups interpret facial expressions differently which may be due to cultural norms and expectations
give three brief evaluation points of Yuki’s study of emoticons
WEAKNESS - emoticons used may not represent human faces
WEAKNESS - the study only investigated two types of emotion
WEAKNESS - rating scales may not be the best method of measurement
describe three weakness of Yuki’s study of emoticons
the emoticons used may not represent human faces
emoticons do not include tell-tale lines on people’s faces which give us further information of how to interpret their eyes and mouth
this means that the results of the study may lack relevance to everyday life
the study only investigated one emotion
in everyday life, faces express a whole range of emotions, not just happiness/sadness
therefore the study does not give us insight into how the full range of emotional expressions are interpreted by people of different cultures
rating scales are not the best method of measurement
emotions are highly complex and rating scales reduce emotion to a single score
therefore YUKI ET AL may have measured the interpretation of emotions in too simple a way
