unit 4 - research methods Flashcards
theory
a suggested explanation for behaviour
aim
a general statement that explains the purpose of a study
independent variable
the variable that the experimenter is deliberately changing
there are usually two levels of the IV
dependent variable
what is measured by the researcher
the only thing that should affect the DV is a change in the IV
operationalisation
making sure that variables are measurable, clear and precise
testable hypothesis
a clear and precise testable statement
alternative hypothesis
a statement of relationship or difference between variables
null hypothesis
a statement of no relationship or difference between variables
cause and effect
the only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV
if the DV does then change, the experimenter has established cause and effect
extraneous variables
unwanted variables that could affect the DV if they are not controlled
standardised instructions
giving the participants exactly the same information about the study to ensure what is said to them doesn’t act as an EV
standardised procedures
researcher used the same method and instructions for all participants in a research study
randomisation
using chance to control for the effects of bias when designing a research study
lab experiment
an experiment conducted in a controlled environment
give four evaluations of lab experiments
STRENGTH - EVs can be controlled which means that cause and effect can be established
STRENGTH - use of standardised procedure ensures replication is possible so it is possible to confirm the validity of results
WEAKNESS - the environment is not like everyday life so behaviour is less normal and results can’t be generalised to the wider world
WEAKNESS - participants may be aware of their being tested to may change their behaviour, making the data invalid
field experiment
an experiment conducted in a natural setting
experimenter manipulated the IV
give four evaluations of field experiments
STRENGTH - often more realistic than lab experiments due to their natural environment which increases the validity of results
STRENGTH - there is some control over EVs as standardised procedures can be used so cause and effect conclusions are more valid
WEAKNESS - researcher may lose control of some EVs because a real life setting makes it more difficult to control them, making it more difficult to show cause and effect
WEAKNESS - there may be ethical issues with people not being aware of their participation so can’t give informed consent
natural experiment
an experiment conducted in a natural or lab setting where the experimenter has no control over the IV
give four evaluations of natural experiments
STRENGTH - usually have high validity because the variables are naturally occurring and relate to everyday life but this isn’t always the case
STRENGTH - the DV is often tested in a lab so EVs can be well controlled because standardised procedures can be followed
WEAKNESS - may be few opportunities for this kind of research as it may focus on natural, and sometimes infrequent, events so the method’s usefulness is reduced
WEAKNESS - there may be a greater amount of EVs that could affect results such as participant variables which can’t be controlled by assigning to groups
independent groups
separate groups of people for each level of the IV
there is usually a control group and an experimental group
give two evaluation points of independent groups design
STRENGTH - order effects are not a problem as participants only do the task once so they won’t benefit from practice
WEAKNESS - there are different participants in each group meaning that participant variables may affect the results and act as an EV, reducing the validity of results
repeated measures
all participants take part in all the conditions
give three evaluation points of repeated measures design
STRENGTH - there are no participants variables as each participant is compared to themselves as opposed to other people, this enhances the validity of results
STRENGTH - fewer participants are needed so repeated measures is less expensive
WEAKNESS - order effects occur when participants are tested twice ; the order of tasks may make a difference which affects the validity of results
this however can be limited using COUNTERBALANCING
matched pairs
participants are tested in terms of variables relevant to the study
participants are then matched and one member of each pair goes in each group
give three evaluation points of matched pairs design
STRENGTH - there are no order effects, enhancing validity
STRENGTH - there are fewer participant variables because those taking part are matched on a variable important to the experiment ; this enhances the validity of the results
WEAKNESS - matching participants takes time and effort and still doesn’t control all participants so may not be worthwhile therefore
target population
the group of people the researcher is studying
sample
a sample of participants chosen from the target population
generalisation
the sample should be representative so we can generalise to the target population
bias
it is difficult to select a group of participants that perfectly reflects the target population
give 4 types of sampling
random
opportunity
systematic
stratified
random sampling
putting names of all member of the target population into a lottery method so that every member has an equal chance of being selected
give two evaluations of random sampling
STRENGTH - there is no bias as every person has an equal chance of being selected, this makes the sample more representative
WEAKNESS - this takes more time and effort than other methods as you need to obtain a list of all member and randomly select them
opportunity sampling
selecting the most readily available group of people
give two evaluations of opportunity sampling
STRENGTH - it is easy, quick and cheap to carry out because you choose people who are easily nearby
WEAKNESS - the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the population because the sample is drawn from one place, which reduces the generalisability of the results
systematic sampling
selecting every nth person from a list of all the people in the target population
give two evaluations of systematic sampling
STRENGTH - it avoids researcher bias so the researcher has no say over who is selected, making it more representative
WEAKNESS - it may still be biased, running the risk of ending up with a sample consisting of one particular group of people, decreasing representativeness
stratified sampling
selecting participants in proportion to their frequency in the target population
give two evaluations of stratified sampling
STRENGTH - this is the most representative of all the sampling methods as the researcher ensures that all the subgroups are represented in proportion to the number in the target population - this enhances representativeness
WEAKNESS - this is very time consuming and it may take a while to recruit and sort participants into sub groups - this discourages researchers from using this method
what are ethical issues in psychology
a conflict between participant’s rights and wellbeing and the need for researchers to obtain valuable results
the wellbeing should be protected at all times
what are the 5 main potential ethical issues
informed consent deception protection from harm privacy confidentiality
what is informed consent
at the start of a study participants should be given information about the purpose of the study
they should be told they can leave at any time so that an informed decision can be made
if the researcher doesn’t reveal the aim at the start, participants must be informed at the end
what is deception
participants should not be lied to or misled about the aims of the study
mild deception is justifiable
major deception is used but this is only permitted if the benefits justify the action
what is protection from harm
participant’s physical and psychological safety should be protected at all times
stress and embarrassment is included in this
participants must be reminded they can leave at any time
what is privacy
participants have the right to control information about themselves
it is acceptable to make observations of people in a public place - but a public place is also quite private
what is confidentiality
personal data should be protected and respected
what are the BPS guidelines
a code of conduct that every professional psychologist in the UK has to follow so they can deal with ethical issues that crop up in their research
how do you deal with informed consent
participants sign a form that tells them what is expected of the,
if this is not possible at the start, they sign a form at the end of the study (retroactive consent)
how do you deal with deception and protection from harm
participants should be given a full debriefing at the end of the investigation to explain the true aims and reduce any distress
they should be offered counselling and the chance to withdraw their data
how do you deal with privacy and confidentiality
all participants should be anonymous
they can be referred to by a number or initials
what are interviews and what are the 3 types
face to face real time contact between an interviewer and an interviewee
can take place over the phone or via text
(structured, semi-structured or unstructured)
structured interview
interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions
can ask follow up questions but these are also prepared beforehand
semi structured interview
Some questions decided in advance.
Follow-up questions emerge from the answers
unstructured interview
Interviewer has a general aim, but few if any questions are prepared in advance.
New questions are created based on what the interviewee has said. A lot like a conversation.
give four evaluation points of interviews
STRENGTH - interviews produce a lot of information meaning that unexpected results may occur
STRENGTH - insight can be gained into a persons thoughts and feeling, this provides a different perspective to observations which only show what people do and not what they think of their behaviour
WEAKNESS - data collected can be difficult to be analyse because of the breadth of information collected - this makes it hard to draw clear conclusions
WEAKNESS - people may feel less comfortable giving personal information face to face, especially if discussing a sensitive topic
this may limit the amount of information collected
questionnaires
a prepared list of written questions which can be completed face to face or in writing, over the phone or on the internet
give four evaluation points of questionnaires
STRENGTH - information gathered from lots of people quickly because it can be sent to many people - this makes generalisations easier to makes
STRENGTH - the data produced tends to be easier to analyse than interviews because closed questions are used which produce quantitative data
WEAKNESS - respondents may not always answer questionnaires truthfully because social desirability may bias their results = this reduces the validity of data collected
WEAKNESS - questions may be unclear or leading, meaning that respondents may find it difficult to answer questions
therefore participant’s responses may lack validity
observational study
a researcher watched and listens to participants, and records data
what are the three types of observation studies
naturalistic versus controlled
covert versus overt (participants not being aware of their behaviour being observes versus being told in advance)
participants versus non-participant (researcher becomes part of group studies versus the researcher remains separate from the people tbehahey are studying)
categories of behaviour
the observer breaks the target behaviour into different categories of behaviour
each category should be observable and obvious so that it can be counted each time it happens
interobserver reliability
two observers should produce the same record of behaviour
to establish this, the researcher creates categories of behaviour, observers record the same sequence of behaviour and they then compare their data , talking over the differences
if observations are not similar, categories may need to be altered or rewritten
give four evaluation points of observation studies
STRENGTH - greater validity than questionnaires/interviews because you observe what is actually done not what people say they do
STRENGTH - look at real life behaviour, with people not always aware of being observed ; this increases validity
WEAKNESS - there may be ethical issues as you cannot always gain people’s consent when observing them in public places - some observations should not be conducted therefore
WEAKNESS - observer bias ; observer’s expectations may influence what they see so the observations lack validity
what do correlations tell us
correlations show how things are linked together
they tell us the strength and direction of the association/relationship between co variables
give four evaluation points of correlations
STRENGTH - they are a good starting point for research because showing a relationship gives researchers ideas for future investigations
STRENGTH - correlations can be used to investigate more complex relationships such as the curvilinear relationship between alertness and time of day - correlation therefore has lots of uses
WEAKNESS - do not show causation making it impossible to show cause and effect ; limiting the usefulness of the technique
WEAKNESS - intervening variables may affect the covariables because there is no control of EVs ; it is therefore possible to draw a conclusion that is wrong
case study
an in depth investigation of a single individual, group, event or institution
often involves unusual or unexpected people or events but can also be used with everyday experiences
what kind of method is a case study
a qualitative method
mostly qualitative data is collected which expresses people’s experiences in words
they often involve interviews with a person’s friends or relatives
give four evaluation points of case studies
STRENGTH - researchers don’t tend to have a specific aim so they are more open minded and less blinkered by what they hope to discover ; this enhances the validity of results
STRENGTH - good method for studying rare behaviour that can’t be investigated using experiments
this gives a greater insight into topics that may not be studies by other research
WEAKNESS - only focus on one individual or event making it difficult to generalise results beyond that particular person or event ; this reduces the validity of results
WEAKNESS - researcher may be subjective and the information collected may be biased by the researcher’s own reading of the case so conclusions drawn may lack validity
reliability
a measure of consistency
if you can repeat a measurement and get the same results, it is reliable
validity
relates to whether a result is a true reflection of ‘real world’ behaviour
quantitative data
numerical data
give two evaluation points of quantitative data
STRENGTH - can be easy to analyse so can be manipulated and groups of people easily compared
WEAKNESS - lacks depth and detail because we obtain little information about thoughts and abilities so it doesn’t reflect how complex things are in the real world
qualitative data
data as words or pictures
give two evaluation points of qualitative data
STRENGTH - qualitative data is more in depth and detail than quantitative data so researcher can gain more insight ; increases validity of results
WEAKNESS - more difficult to analyse as it is hard to summarise material and draw conclusions ; conclusions may be based on the researcher’s opinion
primary data
data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project
give two brief evaluation of primary data
STRENGTH - suits the aims of research and is authentic so may be more useful
WEAKNESS - takes more time and effort to collect primary data than secondary data slowing down the process and increasing expense
secondary data
second hand data from sources such as other studies or government statistics
give two brief evaluation points of secondary data
STRENGTH - easy and convenient to use because it has already been checked; this reduces expense
WEAKNESS - may not quite fit what the researcher wants (may be out of date or from poorly designed studies) ; this may reduce the validity of the research
