unit 1 - memory Flashcards
encoding (verb)
changing information so that it can be stored in the brain
visual encoding
how something looks
‘seeing’ something in your mind
acoustic encoding
how something sounds
‘hearing’ something in your mind
semantic encoding
the meaning of something
tactile encoding
memory of what things feel like to touch
olfactory encoding
memory for smells
encoding - storage - retrieval
describe each stage
encoding - the form information takes when we put it into memory so that it can be held in our brain
storage - holding information in your memory so it can be retrieved at a later point in time
retrieval - the process of accessing information that has been stored in your brain and being able to use it
name 3 types of retrieval
recognition
cued recall
free recall
recognition
identifying something previously learned from a number of options
cued recall
being given a clue to help you remember
free recall
retrieval without cues
name a study of encoding
Baddeley
aim of Baddeley’s study
to see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in STM and LTM memory
method of Baddeley’s study
4 groups given 12 sets of 5 words to remember
group A - similar sounding words
group B - dissimilar sounding words
group C - similar meanings
group D - dissimilar meanings
groups A and B asked to recall their words immediately whilst groups C and D were asked to recall their words after 20 mins
results of Baddeley’s study
group A recalled fewer words than group B (similar sounds were more poorly recalled than different sounding words)
group C recalled fewer words than group D (similar meanings were more poorly recalled than dissimilar meanings)
conclusion of Baddeley’s study
shows that STM is encoded by sound and LTM by meaning
give 3 brief evaluation points of Baddeley’s study
STRENGTH - extraneous variables were well controlled
WEAKNESS - encoding in the STM doesn’t always involve sound
WEAKNESS - LTM may not have been tested
describe one strength of Baddeley’s study
extraneous variables were well controlled
hearing was controlled by giving participants a hearing test for example
therefore we can be more certain that the type of words used was the fact that affected participant’s recall
words were read out at a rate of one per second
describe two weakness of Baddeley’s study
encoding in the STM doesn’t always involve sounds
BRANDIMONTE ET AL found that if pictures are used rather than words then visual encoding will be used
this suggests that information doesn’t go straight to our STM in an acoustic form
the LTM may not have been tested in the study because waiting 20 minutes before recall doesn’t mean that the words are in the LTM
this may mean that the conclusion that LTM encodes acoustically lacks validity
LTM
memories that last a week, month, year or even a lifetime
3 types of LTM
episodic
semantic
procedural
episodic memory
memory for events from your life and what you have done
semantic memory
memory about what things mean
procedural memory
memory of how to do things
difference between declarative and non declarative memories
episodic and semantic memories are called declarative because they need conscious recall
procedural memory is non-declarative because it doesn’t need conscious recall
give 3 brief evaluation points of different types of LTM being identified
STRENGTH - brain scans show that different types of LTM relate to specific brain locations
STRENGTH - supported by case studies of amnesic patients
WEAKNESS - distinctive types of LTM are difficult to separate
describe two strengths of different types of LTM being identified
brain scans show that different types of LTM related to specific brain locations
for example: episodic memory - right prefrontal area
semantic memory - left prefrontal area
procedural memory - motor area
this shows that there are different types of LTM
supported by case studies of amnesic patients
Clive Wearing lost most of his episodic memory but not his procedural memory as he could still play the piano
this shows that there are different types of LTM
describe one weakness of different types of LTM being identified
distinctive types of LTM are difficult to separate
there is no clear difference between episodic and semantic memories because memories are usually a mixture of types
therefore having separate types of LTM may be an oversimplification
multi-store model
there are three memory stores (sensory memory, STM and LTM) and each has different encoding, capacity and duration
information moves between these stores through attention or rehearsal
sensory memory
coding - memories are coded to a form appropriate to the sense (eyes - visual encoding)
capacity - very high capacity (eg. the retina in your eyes contains millions of cells)
duration - very briefly for less than half a second in visual memory unless you pay attention to it
STM memory
coding - tends to be acoustic
capacity - on average between 5 and 9 (7+/-2) items or chunks of information
duration - less than 30 seconds if not rehearsed
LTM memory
coding - tends to be semantic
capacity - potentially unlimited because the brain is constantly removing unneeded information so we always appear to have more room
duration - up to a lifetime
what is the role of rehearsal in the multi store model of memory
if you repeat or rehearse a piece of information it will go into your long term memory
if you then recall them afterwards, this is maintenance rehearsal
give three brief evaluation points of the multi store model
STRENGTH - there is support for the existence of different memory stores
WEAKNESS - the model is too simple as it suggests we only have one STM and one LTM
WEAKNESS - research supporting the model used artificial materials
describe one strength of the multi store model of memory
there is support for the existence of different memory stores
Baddeley’s study of encoding shows that STM and LTM encode information differently
this shows that two types of memory have qualitative differences
describe two weaknesses of the multi store model of memory
the model is too simple as it suggests that we only have one STM and one LTM
research shows STM is divided into visual and coustic stored whilst LTM is divided int episodic, semantic and procedural memory
memory is more complex than the model suggests
research supporting the MSM used artificial memory tasks
the studies often used nonsense syllables or word lists which means that the results would not illustrate all the different ways we use memory
who investigated primacy and recency effect
Murdock’s serial position curve study
aim of Murdock’s serial position curve study
to see if memory of words was affected by where words are located in the list
method of Murdock’s serial position curve study
words from the 4000 most common words in English were chosen randomly
participants listened to 20 word lists with 10 to 40 words in them and recalled the words after each list
results of Murdock’s serial position curve study
recall was related to the position of the word in the list
Murdock found higher recall for the first few words (primacy effect) and the last words (recency effect) in the list compared to recall of words in the middle of the list
conclusions of Murdock’s serial position curve study
shows the serial position effect
results support the MSM as the first few words are rehearsed so are in LTM and the last few words are still in STM
what is the serial position effect
the position of a word determines likelihood of recall
give 3 brief evaluation points of Murdock’s serial position curve study
STRENGTH - carried out in lab conditions
STRENGTH - research with amnesiacs supports the study’s conclusions
WEAKNESS - the task used was artificial
describe two strengths of Murdock’s serial position curve study
the study was carried out in laboratory conditions so things like familiarity of words could be controlled
we can therefore be more certain that it was the position of the words that affected recall
research with amnesiacs supports the conclusions of the study
CARLESIMO ET AL found that some amnesiacs can’t store long term memories and do not show a primacy effect but do show some recency effect
shows that the primacy effect is related to LTM
describe one weakness of Murdock’s serial position curve study
the task used was artificial
lists of words were used which related to just one type of memory
therefore, the results don’t relate to how we use our memories in other aspects of life
what study investigated reconstructive memory
Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
aim of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
to investigate how memory is reconstructed when people are asked to recall an unfamiliar story - in particular a story from another culture
method of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
participants were shown the War of the Ghosts story
they were asked to reproduce it shortly after and he then showed this new version to another person (serial reproductions)
he repeated this with further participants
results of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
participants changed the story
leaving out information with which they were less familiar
the story was shortened and phrases were changed to those used within the participant’s own culture eg. canoes became boats
conclusion of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
we use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory as details of the story were invented to improve meaning
give three brief evaluation points of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
WEAKNESS - there was a lack of control
WEAKNESS - results were biased
WEAKNESS - the story was unusual
describe three weaknesses of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
there was a lack of control
participants were not told that accurate recall was important - other studies found that recall was better when participants were told this
this suggests that recall is more accurate than Bartlett concluded
Bartlett’s own beliefs may have caused the results to be biased
he analysed the recollections himself so his belief that recall would be affected by cultural expectations may have biased the interpretation of results
we may not be able to fully trust the conclusions therefore
the story was unusual so recall of the story may not affect everyday memory processes as these would not be affect by cultural expectations
this study therefore tells us little about everyday memory
what is the theory of reconstructive memory
memory is inaccurate - we do not have exact recall so elements are missing and memories are not an
accurate representation of what happened
reconstruction - we record small piece of information in long term memory - during recall we recombine them to tell the whole story so each time the elements are combined slightly differently
social and cultural influences - the way that information is stored and recalled is affected by social and cultural expectations
effort AFTER meaning - we focus on the meaning of events and make an effort to understand the meaning to make sense of parts of the story
give three brief evaluation points of Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory
STRENGTH - the research used to support this reflects memory in our everyday lives
STRENGTH - helps to explain problems with eyewitness testimony
WEAKNESS - not all memories are reconstructed
describe two strengths of Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory
the research reflects how we use memory in our everyday lives
the research doesn’t use word lists or nonsense syllables but instead uses a story
makes the results more relevant to real life memory processes
reconstructive memory explains problems with eyewitness testimony (EWT)
Bartlett’s research showed memory is affected by expectations so shows that people do not always recall accurately
therefore, EWT is no longer solely relied on as evidence in criminal investigations
interference
if two memories compete with each other, one memory may prevent us from accessing the other memory
what study investigated interference
McGeoch and McDonald’s study
aim of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
to see whether the accuracy of recalling a list of words would be affected by a competing set of words
method of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
participants learned a list of ten words and then were shown a new list
there were 5 different new lists; words with similar meanings to the 1st list ; words with opposite meanings ; unrelated words ; nonsense syllables ; three digit numbers ; or no new list was given
results of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
when participants recalled the initial list of words, their memory was affected by the new list
the effect was strongest when the new list had words with similar meanings to those in the first list
conclusions of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
this shows that interference from a second set of information reduces the accuracy of memory
interference is strongest when the two sets of information are similar
proactive interference
when you recall the word from the 1st set when trying to remember the 2nd set
retroactive interfence
when you recall the word from the 2nd set when trying to remember the 1st set
give three brief evaluation points of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
STRENGTH - there was high control
WEAKNESS - does not reflect real life memory activity
WEAKNESS - interference may not be an explanation of forgetting
describe one strength of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
there was high control
techniques such as counterbalancing were used to reduce the impact that learning the lists in the same order would have on the results
the study was therefore less biased
describe two weaknesses of McGeoch and McDonald’s study
the study does not reflect real life memory activity
we don’t often have to remember lists of words or very similar things
this means that the conclusion about the effect of interference is limited in terms of its artificiality
interference may not be an explanation of forgetting
it may be that information is not forgotten but just can’t be accessed because the appropriate cue has not been given (TULVING AND PSOTKA)
interference therefore does not CAUSE inaccurate memories
context
other things that are present at the time of learning act as a cue for recall ; improving the accuracy of memory
who investigated the effect of context on the accuracy of memory
Godden and Baddeley
aim of Godden and Baddeley’s study
to see if context improved recall
method of Godden and Baddeley’s study
divers listened to and and recalled words in the same or different conditions
same context - dry/dry wet/wet
different context - dry/wet wet/dry
results of Godden and Baddeley’s study
recall was highest in the two matching conditions
when a person is in the same environment for learning and recall, their memories were more accurate
conclusions of Godden and Baddeley’s study
context of learning acts as a trigger or cue when trying to remember information and thus improves the accuracy of memory
give three brief evaluation points of Godden and Baddeley’s study
WEAKNESS - research used lists of words
WEAKNESS - study was unrealistic as recall was almost immediate
WEAKNESS - context only acts as a cute for recall if time of learning and recall are very similar
describe three weakness of Godden and Baddeley’s study
the research used lists of words
research with complex materials in real life produced better recall, suggesting that context does not affect memory as much as the study suggests
the study was unrealistic as participants recalled the words almost immediately
this does not relate to scenarios like exams where the gap between learning and recall is learning so this study only tells us about short term recall
context only acts as a cue for recall if the context at the time of learning and recall are very similar
SMITH found that this rarely happens in real world situations because initial learning takes place in multiple contexts
context only improves memory recall in limited situations
false memory
a memory for something that did not happen but a person thinks its a true memory
who investigated the effect of false memories on the accuracy of memory
Loftus and Pickrell
aim of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
to see if false memories could be created in participants through suggestions
method of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
participants given 4 stories about childhood events of which three were true and one was false
the false event was about getting lost as a child in a shopping mall
the story was created with the help of a relative so that it sounded realistic
participants read each story and wrote what they remembered
results of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
68% of the true episodes were remembered
6 out of the 24 participants recalled the false story fully or partially - the other 75% had no memory of it
conclusion of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
showed that imagining an event can implant a false memory in a person, reducing the accuracy of memory
give three brief evaluation points of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
STRENGTH - this research has implications for eyewitness testimony
WEAKNESS - research raises ethical concerns
WEAKNESS - the false memory event is not of the same traumatic kind that could be found in therapy
describe one strength of Loftus and Pickrell’s study
the research has implications for eyewitness testimony
the results suggest that police questioning could accidentally implant false memories which is useful in explaining why EWT may be unreliable
describe two weaknesses Loftus and Pickrell’s study
the research raises ethical concerns
even thought participants were debriefed, they may be left with implanted false memories which lingered after the study finished
therefore, the study may have caused psychological harm, an ethical issue
the false memory event is not the same traumatic kind that could be found in therapy
harmless events might be implanted easily but traumatic events may not be
therefore, conclusions that can be drawn about false memories are limited
