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ESS SL > Unit 6 (Kognity Only) > Flashcards

Unit 6 (Kognity Only) Flashcards

1
Q

The pH of natural deposition

A

Usually acidic between pH 5 and 6 due to the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere forming carbonic acid

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2
Q

Acid deposition occurs as a result of:

A

Primary pollutants of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides reacting in the atmosphere to form secondary pollutants of sulphuric and nitric acid. Then, the pH declines to below 5

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3
Q

The main human source of primary pollutants, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides

A

The combustion of fossil fuels

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4
Q

Natural sources of sulphur dioxide

A

Volcano emissions, hot springs, and biodegradation of dead organic matter

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5
Q

Natural sources of nitrogen oxides

A

Lightning and biodegradation of dead organic matter

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6
Q

Decomposition can occur as

A

Wet or dry deposition

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7
Q

Wet deposition example

A

Earn pollutants are incorporated into the clouds or falling raindrops and result in acidified rain or snow

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8
Q

Dry deposition example

A

When atmospheric pollutants are removed by gravity or direct contact under dry conditions. EG: when emissions of ash or dry particles from power stations are absorbed directly onto plants and buildings

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9
Q

When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the air

A

They can be transported long distances by prevailing winds. In the presence of strong winds, pollutants are dispersed over larger areas than with light winds which allow them to accumulate near the source resulting in more acute pollution

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10
Q

Tall smoke stacks have often been used

A

To reduce local pollution by increasing dispersion of the pollutants

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11
Q

Wind speeds are lower at ground level due to

A

Friction from the ground, vegetation and buildings. So there is less friction higher up where speeds are greater

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12
Q

Prevailing winds

A

Carry pollutants long distances to otherwise unpolluted areas EG: the majority of Acid deposition in Norway originates in Germany, the UK, and Poland

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13
Q

The topography downwind of the source pollution

A

Can affect the distribution of acidic deposition

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14
Q

Pollution in mountainous areas

A

Moist air masses are forced to rise causing cooling and condensation resulting in precipitation potentially increasing acidification in the area

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15
Q

The impacts of acid deposition on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

A

Depends on the capacity of the environment to neutralise the acidic input

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16
Q

Calcium carbonate (limestone)

A

Has a high buffering capacity

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17
Q

The presence of alkaline calcium and magnesium compounds

A

Increase the buffering capacity of soil and water, reducing the effect of acid deposition

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18
Q

Acid deposition can enter aquatic ecosystems

A

Directly (EG: precipitation as rain) or indirectly (as run off) - it can also lower the pH of the quantity environment beyond the ability of some organisms to service

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19
Q

Species that are sensitive to changes in pH

A

Phytoplankton, invertebrate (eg: crayfish) and fish (eg: trout and salmon)

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20
Q

Loss of some species causes

A

A knock on effect through the food chain, adversely affecting other organisms due to lack of prey. Some species suffer from reproductive failure and many fish eggs do not hatch below pH 5

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21
Q

When fish are exposed to aluminium ions

A

They secrete excess mucus around the gills preventing oxygen updates and leading to death by asphyxiation

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22
Q

Decrease in soil pH

A

Releases aluminium ions, then leached into the aquatic system

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23
Q

Acid deposition increases the rate of

A

Stone erosion and metal corrosion

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24
Q

Metal corrosion

A

When acid deposition increases the corrosion of metals such as iron and steel, building structures are weakened

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25
Q

Stone erosion

A

Buildings made of marble and limestone are vulnerable to acid deposition which reacts with the calcium carbonate forming gypsum which flakes off. It also penetrated beyond the stone through the pores where crystals of gypsum can grow causing cracks to appear and stone to crumble

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26
Q

Terrestrial ecosystems acid deposition

A

Acid deposition on land increases soil acidity

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27
Q

The lowering of solid pH results in

A

Leaching of plant nutrients, mobilisation of aluminium ions, mobilisation of other toxic metals from soil

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28
Q

Leaching of plant nutrients

A

Calcium, magnesium, and potassium. This reduces the nutrients available for plant uptake

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29
Q

Overall, the effect of acid deposition in soil results in

A

Reduction in crop yield in agricultural areas, loss of biodiversity and reduction in forest areas

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30
Q

Exposure of plants to acid deposition results in:

A

Damage to the cuticle wax found on leaves reducing photosynthesis, lower tolerance to pests, disease and low temperature

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31
Q

Mobilisation of aluminium ions

A

Damage plant root systems and can also be leached into nearby watercourses adversely affecting fish and discussed above

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32
Q

Mobilisation of other toxic metals from soil

A

Cadmium, lead, and mercury which can then be leached into quantity ecosystems adversely affecting aquatic organisms and potentially contaminating drinking water

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33
Q

The main sources of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that’s result in formation of acid rain include:

A

Stationary sources, mobile sources

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34
Q

Stationary sources

A

IE: fixed point sources such as a power station, industry, and domestic boilers

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35
Q

Mobile sources

A

Predominantly vehicles

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36
Q

Methods to reduce emissions of air pollutants

A

Also apply to the reduction of acid deposition

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37
Q

Acid deposition is considered as…

A

A regional rather than global issue

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38
Q

Acid deposition is a….

A

Transboundary issue where impacts may occur hundreds of miles downwind of the source

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39
Q

Acid deposition frequently occurs…

A

In neighbouring or nearby countries

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40
Q

Conference focused on the growing problem of acid deposition

A

1972 United Nations conference on Human Environment in Stockholm

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41
Q

After the UN conference, activity was extended by….

A

The Geneva convention of long range transboundary air pollution in 1979, 1999 Gothenburg protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication, and ground level ozone with the last amendment in 2012. The Geneva invention allowed parties to share knowledge and scientific information to set and update emission targets

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42
Q

Regional air quality agreement

A

Between Canada and the US in 1991 to repair issues of transboundary pollution between the to countries, emission of precursors to acid deposition have fallen significantly in both countries

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43
Q

Cap and trade

A

Involves allocating utilities with permits which allow them to produce a set amount of emissions. The utilities are then free to buy and sell emission permits to each other. Those that do not use their permits gain economically by selling their surplus to other. The US uses it to reduce emission levels

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44
Q

Acid deposition clean up and restoration example:

A

In Sweden, linestone is added to some lakes annually to maintain a suitable pH for fish rocks. However, it is only seen as a short term solution while the source of pollution is reduced since a majority of the AD in Sweden is from other countries, with importance lying in cooperation

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45
Q

Terrestrial systems an be limed to….

A

Increase solid pH and immortalise toxic metals. On agricultural land, fertilisers may also be added to replace lost nutrients

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46
Q

In-situ clean up and restoration

A

Clean up methods have focused around neutralising the acidic water by adding limestone (calcium carbonate)

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47
Q

Liming in Sweden

A

Here, thousands of lakes were affected by acid deposition where liming has restored the natural pH of about 7500 lakes, restocking them with fish

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48
Q

Process of liming water

A

Raising the pH causes aluminium ions to precipitate out of the water column. However, it will reoccur if acid deposition continues.

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49
Q

When water is at a low pH

A

Aluminium ions are released back into the water column which can have a detrimental effect on fish stocks

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50
Q

Catalytic converters

A

Reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides, VOCs and carbon monoxide

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51
Q

A barometer …

A

Measures air pressure. At sea level this is 760mm Hg (Mercury) and declines with increasing altitude. The lowest pressure on land is found at the highest peak of Mount Everest

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52
Q

Troposphere

A

The layer of the atmosphere closest to the earth’s surface including where we live, it extends about 10km above sea level

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53
Q

The greenhouse effect occurs in the

A

Troposphere and helps to regulate the temperature of the earth

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54
Q

In the troposphere

A

Most of out weather occurs, most of the atmospheric mass is found (including nearly all water vapour, clouds, and pollutants)

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55
Q

Humans and other organisms have the most interaction….

A

With the troposphere (EG: through the exchange of gases or the introduction of pollutants)

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56
Q

Temperature in the troposphere

A

Warmest near the earth surface with temperature declining around 6.5º per km.

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57
Q

Heat on the earth’s surface

A

The earth’s surface absorbs heat from the sun. The warm earth then heats the atmosphere through conduction

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58
Q

In the absence of GHGs

A

The heat would be radiated back into space potentially resulting in an average global temperature of -18º

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59
Q

In the presence of GHGs

A

Long wave radiation is absorbed by the gases resulting in warming of the atmosphere to an average global temperature of approx. 15º. This is the “Natural GH effect”

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60
Q

Human activities that alter the concentration of GHGs

A

In the atmosphere, can impact global temperatures

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61
Q

The albedo effect

A

Some solar energy does not enter the earth’s atmosphere reaching the ground. It is rather reflected back into space by clouds, particles, in the area and surfaces such as ice and snow

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62
Q

Energy from the sun enters as

A

Short wave radiation, and only some of it is absorbed by the earth’s surface

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63
Q

As the ground warms

A

Heat energy is radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of long wave radiation

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64
Q

Green house gases absorb

A

Long wave radiation

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65
Q

Water vapour

A

The most abundant GHG. Rise in temperature results in larger quantities leading to further warming, allowing more water to evaporate and the positive feedback cycle continues

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66
Q

Carbon dioxide

A

Concentrations are increased by burning fossil fuels, respiration, volcanic activity, and deforestation.

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67
Q

Plants and trees act as

A

Carbon sinks, removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, storing it in the form of biomass

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68
Q

Deforestation GHG impact

A

Reduces available carbon sinks which worsens the situation

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69
Q

Methane

A

Arises from livestock emissions, anaerobic decomposition of waste, rice cultivation, and fossil fuels

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70
Q

Anaerobic

A

“Relating to or requiring an absence of free oxygen”

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71
Q

Nitrous oxide

A

Sources include fertilisers, combustion, and industrial processes

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72
Q

Perfluorocarbon

A

Used in the production of aluminium

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73
Q

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

A

Used as liquid coolants (in refrigerators and air con systems), in the production of plastic foam as industrial solvents

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74
Q

Sulphur hexa-fluoride

A

Used in production of magnesium

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75
Q

The earth’s atmosphere consists of

A

4 distinct layers

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76
Q

Stratopause

A

Marks the ends of the stratosphere and is where the temperature remains constant with altitude

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77
Q

Stratosphere

A

Extends from 10 to 50km above sea level

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78
Q

Weather in the stratosphere

A

Wind increases with height, the air is dry

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79
Q

Stratospheric ozone

A

Absorbs ultra violet radiation from the sun

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80
Q

Temperature in the stratosphere

A

Constant at approx -60º in the lower part of the stratosphere, which is shielded by the ozone layer but then increases with altitude

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81
Q

Mesopause

A

Occurs at the end of the mesosphere and is where the temperature does not change

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82
Q

Both the mesosphere and the stratosphere

A

Provide some protection against meteorites

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83
Q

Mesosphere

A

Ranges from about 50 to 80km above sea level

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84
Q

Temperature in the mesosphere

A

Without the presence of ozone or other particles to absorb UV radiation, the temperature declines with height. The coldest part sees temperatures falling to -100º C

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85
Q

Weather in the mesosphere

A

There are strong winds which go up to 3,000 km/h

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86
Q

Thermosphere

A

Extends beyond 80km to between 500 to 1000km

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87
Q

Radiation in the thermosphere

A

UV and X-radiation from the sun is absorbed which breaks apart molecules into atoms

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88
Q

Main atomic components in the thermosphere

A

Oxygen, nitrogen, and helium atoms are the main components in the upper thermosphere

89
Q

Temperature in the Thermosphere

A

Temperature increases with height and can reach beyond 2000º C. This heat can cause the layer to expand causing variation in depth overtime from 500-1000km

90
Q

Ionosphere

A

Located within the thermosphere, comprising of an area in which the particles are electrically charged

91
Q

Ionosphere radiation

A

Shortwave radio waves bounce off these ions back to earth, these are used by amateur radio enthusiasts to communicate over large distances

92
Q

Another feature of the ionosphere

A

The “aurorae Polaris” (polar lights consisting of both the Northern lights in the northern hemisphere and the southern lights in the Southern Hemisphere) our as a result of electrically charged particles from the sun colliding with ions in the ionosphere

93
Q

There is a debate about

A

Where the atmosphere ends and space begins

94
Q

“The Karman Line”

A

At 100km above sea level, has been accepted as the point where atmosphere ends and space begins by the international aeronautic federation.

95
Q

Other ISS orbit within

A

The thermosphere

96
Q

The ozone layer occurs

A

In the stratosphere between 20-30 km

97
Q

The hydrological and nutrient cycles

A

Influence levels of gases in the atmosphere

98
Q

Some components of the atmosphere such as:

A

Carbon dioxide, water vapour, and ozone, vary significantly from one location to another and are effected by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels

99
Q

Nitrogen quantity in the atmosphere

A

78%

100
Q

Oxygen quantity in the atmosphere

A

21%

101
Q

Argon quantity in the atmosphere

A

0.93%

102
Q

Neon quantity in the atmosphere

A

0.002%

103
Q

Carbon dioxide, water vapour, Aragon, and other gases

A

17%

104
Q

Water quantity in the atmosphere

A

Variable 0.01 to 4

105
Q

Carbon dioxide quantity in the atmosphere

A

Variable eg: 0.03%

106
Q

Ozone quantity in the atmosphere

A

Variable eg: 0.0006

107
Q

During the Proterozoic era which followed the Archean era (2.5 billion to 542 million years ago)

A

Levels of atmospheric oxygen continued to increase

108
Q

What occurred during the Proterozoic era?

A

Levels of carbon dioxide decreased, higher up the atmosphere, oxygen molecules were split by sunlight energy into atomic oxygen which lead to the formation of ozone, more complex single felled organisms (eukaryotes) appeared about 2 billion years ago, followed by multicellular organisms about 1 billion years ago

109
Q

Life was restricted to the oceans until

A

The ozone layer had developed to shield the earth;s surface from the harmful effects of UV light

110
Q

The first green plants appeared on land

A

Approx. 500 million years ago during the Phanerozoic era (542 million years UFO until present day)

111
Q

Any oxygenn formed during the Archean era

A

Reacted with other gases and iron sulphide in the oceans to from red Ron oxide which then precipitated onto the seabed

112
Q

The oxygen formation during the Archean era

A

Left to the formation of sedimentary rocks over time, containing red bands of oxidised iron

113
Q

The earth’s early atmosphere predominately consisted of

A

Hydrogen and helium gases, which later escaped into space as a result of solar winds and a weak magnetic field within the earth

114
Q

Volcanic emissions led to an atmosphere

A

Comprised of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulphide

115
Q

Life first appeared on earth

A

about 3.8 billion years ago in the form of simple felled bacteria (prokaryotes)

116
Q

Early bacteria

A

anaerobic and included methane producing bacteria that used carbon dioxide and hydrogen. It evolved to capture and use light energy leading to photosynthetic bacteria

117
Q

Phyotosynthetic bacteria

A

Produced oxygen as a by-product and included Cyanobacteria, responsible for increasing levels of atmospheric oxygen from less that 1% to almost 21%

118
Q

The earth was formed approx.

A

4.5 billion years ago

119
Q

The combustion of fossil fuels

A

Leads to emissions containing carbon dioxide, water vapour, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates such as smoke and soot

120
Q

If combustion is incomplete

A

there may also be emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.

121
Q

Primary pollutants

A

Air pollutants which are directly emitted from their source

122
Q

Secondary pollutants

A

Formed when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere

123
Q

Examples of secondary pollutants

A

Acid rain, Ozone

124
Q

One formation

A

When nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight energy

125
Q

Acid rain formation

A

When nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide react with water

126
Q

Nitrogen dioxide

A

Can be a primary of secondary pollutant

127
Q

Nitrogen dioxide is a primary pollutant if

A

It is formed during fossil fuel combustion and emitted into the atmosphere

128
Q

Nitrogen dioxide is a secondary pollutant when

A

It is formed from nitrogen oxide in the air reacting with oxygen

129
Q

Carbon dioxide and water vapour

A

Green house gases, resulting in an increase in the average global temperature and contributing to climate change

130
Q

Sulphur dioxide

A

Coal and oil contain sulphur, when these fossil fuels are combusted they produce sulphur dioxide gas which is toxic, and is linked to an increase risk of cardiac disease and death

131
Q

Sulphur dioxide can act as…

A

A potent respiratory irritant which causes inflammation of the lungs, it can trigger asthma attacks, chronic bronchitis, and also increase the risk of lung infections. An eye irritant, and a Pricilla component of acid rain

132
Q

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

A

Yellow brown gas that can reduce visibility and apparatus as a haze over urban areas

133
Q

Nitrogen oxides are

A

Respiratory irritants causing lung inflammation and triggering asthma, a principal component of acid rain, a precursor of photochemical smog and ozone formation

134
Q

Particulates

A

Produced during FF combustion and emitted into the atmosphere. Suspended particulates such as smoke and soot are categorised according to size

135
Q

PM 10

A

Particulate matter with a diameter of 10 μm of less. Exposure has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease

136
Q

PM2.5

A

Particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less. Can travel deep into the lungs, increasing the risk of respiratory diseases and cancer

137
Q

World heath organisation (WHO) estimated that in 2012

A

Air pollution resulted in 3.7 premature deaths - 80% heart disease, 14% respiratory infections, 6% lung cancer

138
Q

Main sources of NOx emissions

A

Industry, power stations, and vehicles

139
Q

The main sources of volatile organic compunds (VOCs)

A

Industry, vehicles, solvents (eg: used in plants and adhesives)

140
Q

Forest fires accidental or intentional (eg: slash and burn)

A

Increase levels of VOCs and particulate matter (PM10) while leading to deforestation and loss of habitats

141
Q

Photochemical smog occurs

A

When sunlight activates reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) resulting in the formation of ozone and peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN)

142
Q

VOCs (Volatile organic compounds)

A

Carbon based compounds with a low boiling point such as propane, butane, and formaldehydes

143
Q

The formation of chemical smog involves

A

A series of complex reactions, the mixture of over 100 different chemicals formed is dominated by ozone, but also include other oxidants such as peroxuacyl nitrates (PAN) and aldehydes

144
Q

The impacts of ozone on…

A

Healthy reduced crop production, and material degradation, also contribute to a significant economic loss

145
Q

Air pollution

A

Can be blown downwind from its sauce to cause movement of pollution from urban to rural areas. Expanding the size of its impact

146
Q

The formation of smog is affected by:

A

Climate, topography, population density, and the total amount of industry and vehicles

147
Q

Impact of tropospheric ozone

A

Highly reactive, inflammation of lungs and contributing to asthma, reduces lung function contributing to lung disease and premature death, eye and nose irritation, damages fabrics like rubber and plastics

148
Q

Impact of tropospheric ozone on the environment

A

Damages cells in leaves disrupting photosynthesis and reducing plant growth which affects crops and forest. In crops such as wheat, soya beans, tomatoes, and cotton, smog has also been found to increase risk of infection

149
Q

Many cities experience photochemical smog yet it is more common when:

A

The city is located in a valley, weather is sunny and dry with little wind movement, there are high emissions from cars or industry (EG: LA, Rio, Mexico City)

150
Q

Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog

A

Emissions, sunlight, winds, weather, topography, thermal inversion

151
Q

Emissions - Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog

A

From the combustion of fossil fuels, influenced by the amount of industry, population size, common mode of transport in an area

152
Q

Weather - Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog

A

The highest levels of ozone occur during the sunniest part of the day, calm or light winds reduce dispersion and dilution allowing pollutants to accumulate at ground level, dry weather in which rain does not wash the pollutants from the air

153
Q

Topography - Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog

A

Allows pollutants to accumulate such as a valley surrounded by hills. The hills reduce the flow of air allowing pollution to concentrate in The Valley. Tall buildings also have the same impact increasing pollution levels

154
Q

Thermal inversion - Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog

A

Occurs at ground level, warms, and rises which also dissipates the air pollutants. This air expands and cools resulting in a temperature gradient.

155
Q

During a thermal inversion

A

Cold air is trapped below a layer of warm air. This can occur during cold winter nights when the earth’s surface cools and chills the later of air next to it. This is broken when the sun comes to warm the air.

156
Q

Temperature inversions only last

A

A few hours unless meteorological factors (high pressure) result in clear, windless conditions that allow pollutants to accumulate at ground level. Although thermal inversions are usually shallow, deep inversions can occur in a valley and be slow to dissipate

157
Q

Pollution reduction policies can employ the following approaches:

A

Altering human activity, legislation to prevent or regulate the release of air pollutants, clean up and restoration of damaged systems

158
Q

Altering human activity can be achieved by changing human behaviour and may:

A

Involve education and campaigns to inform the public of the effects of air pollution and ways they can reduce omissions, be supported by economic instruments, involve the use of alternative technologies

159
Q

Educational campaigns are often used to inform the public about:

A

The damage caused by air pollution, how they can take appropriate action to reduce emissions

160
Q

Adopting practices at an individual level that reduce energy use (changing human behaviour)

A

Using more energy efficient devices such as refrigerators and washing machines, turning off appliances rather than in standby mode, making home modifications to reduce loss of heat through windows, doors, roof, and flooring such as efficient windows (triple glazed), wall cavity insulations, and ceiling and floor insulation

161
Q

Some policies occur internationally, right down to locally. EG…

A

The EU has adopted air pollution policies that involved national government down to local regional governmental level to be effective

162
Q

Other practises to modify human behaviour (part 2)

A

Decrease car use and us public transport, share vehicles, and cycling. Adopt hurried cars, reduce consumption of non-local goods that are transported long distances, decrease consumption of non local goods that utilise energy during production (EG: latest fashions encourage waste)

163
Q

Hybrid and electric cars

A

Hybrid use both petrol and electricity or electric car only use electricity. They are effective in reducing air pollution when renewable sources of energy are used to generate the electricity. If FF are used. To generate electricity, emission control technologies should be employed to reduce levels of pollutants

164
Q

Economic tools for changing human behaviour

A

Road tolls and parking charges to discourage cars, subsidising public transport, subsidies or tax credits to promote renewable energy sources, charging pollution emitters eg: pollution tax charged based on amount produced, use of subsidies to encourage new technologies and support research into methods to reduce pollution from combustion

165
Q

Catalytic converters

A

Can be used on all motor vehicles to reduce the amount of potential pollutants

166
Q

Catalytic converters process

A

Reduces NOx to form nitrogen and oxygen gas, oxidises carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide, oxidises VOCs to carbon dioxide and water

167
Q

Alternative energy sources

A

To reduce air emissions, technologies that harness renewable energy sources include solar panels and wind turbines

168
Q

Current research is looking to….

A

Improve energy efficiency of processes and products, Fisher improve the efficiency of renewable energy sources, further develop low emission vehicles, develop low emission fuels

169
Q

Increasing energy efficiency

A

More energy efficient industrial processes, more efficient cars and home appliances

170
Q

Disadvantage of new technologies in energy efficiency

A

Technological changes require more time and financial investment to be developed. It might also require economic support to be competitive in the market place

171
Q

Legislation

A

For legislation to be effective in reducing atmospheric pollution, it requires appropriate enforcement and policing

172
Q

International agreements

A

Set goals that are then adopted into national policies

173
Q

1999 Gothenburg Protocol

A

Abate acidification, eutrophication, and ground level ozone, sets a minimum emission standard for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia

174
Q

legislation setting emission standards

A

Can be used to set more stringent emission standards for industry, power generation, and vehicles. This encourages use of low sulphur fuel such as gas or adoption of renewable energy such as solar or wind to meet more stringent standards

175
Q

Building regulations

A

Set standards that require improvements in new and existing building to improve energy efficiency. EG: improved insulation of to reduce loss of heat and more efficient appliances such as boilers

176
Q

Planning regulations

A

Locates industry and power stations outside of urban areas and in places where conditions are least likely to allow air pollutants to accumulate. (EG: outside valleys) They also promote alternatives to private car use (vehicle free zones, cycle lanes, road lanes for car sharing or public transport)

177
Q

Clean up measures

A

“Scrubbers” are used by industry and power stations to filter emissions prior to discharge to remove primary pollutants such as particulate matter and sulphur dioxide

178
Q

Once photochemical smog is formed

A

Ozone and PAN are highly reactive and are removed by reactions with other chemicals. In polluted areas, levels of ozone fall overnight reacting with nitrogen oxide to form oxygen and nitrogen dioxide

179
Q

Restoration

A

May involve reforestation and replanting of areas affected by smog

180
Q

Stratospheric ozone is threatened by….

A

Chemicals that react with the ozone and reduce its concentration. They are names ozone depleting substances (ODS)

181
Q

Ozone depleting substances (ODS)

A

Often contain chlorine or bromine. One of main groups are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They also include methyl bromide, halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and hydrobromofluorocarbons (HFCs)

182
Q

Methyl bromide

A

Used as a soil fumigator to destroy pests. Natural sources include emissions from the ocean and the burning of biomass. It releases bromine into the stratosphere which is estimated 50 times more effective than chlorine at destroying ozone. Lifespan of 2 years

183
Q

Halons

A

Similar to CFCs but contain bromine rather than chlorine. They are used as fire suppressants in fire extinguishers

184
Q

Carbon tetrachloride

A

Used as a solvent, dry cleaning agent, refrigerant, and a propellant for aerosol cans

185
Q

Methyl chloroform

A

Used in industrial solvents, degreasing agent, correction fluid, spray adhesive, and aerosols

186
Q

Natural emissions of ODCs

A

Emissions from volcanoes. EG: the eruption of mount pinatubo in 1991 which released sulphate particles and nitrogen oxides which reacted with the stratospheric ozone, declining its levels,

187
Q

Hydrobromonfluorocarbons (HBFCs)

A

Similar properties to CFCs and contain either or both bromine and fluorine. Used as solvents, cleaning agents, and as suppressants in fire extinguishers

188
Q

Special differences

A

Variation is stratospheric ozone levels around the world, both seasonal and long term changes.

189
Q

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

A

A farming of chemicals discovered in 1930 including CFC-11, CFC-12 sometimes referred to as their trade name - Freons

190
Q

CFCs are widely used as

A

Coolants in refrigerators and air con systems, propellants in erosion cans, cleaning agents for electrical parts, blowing agents in plastic foam

191
Q

CFCs are…

A

Very stable compounds with lifetimes of between 65-110 years. They were initially considered as non-problematic to the environment due to their high stability

192
Q

CFCs are not…

A

Solvable and therefore can not be removed by rain. They dissipate into the air. Over a period of 10-20 years, they gradually migrate upwards from the troposphere into the stratosphere

193
Q

CFCs in the stratosphere

A

UV light breaks down the molecule producing chlorine atoms that react with ozone, breaking it down and reforming chlorine atoms. This is a chain reaction, and unsettles the previous ozone equilibrium. More ozone is destroyed than formed resulting in depletion

194
Q

Scientists have estimated one molecule of CFC

A

Can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone

195
Q

Once chlorine atoms form hydrogen chloride

A

It diffuses out of the stratosphere into the troposphere where it is washed out by rain

196
Q

Formation of ozone

A

Ozone is created from a series of different oxygen molecules and atoms. When a short wave of UV light hits an oxygen molecule (O2), the molecule splits to become 2 oxygen atoms. Then one of these will join with another O2 molecule, and combine to become Ozone, being O3. This O3 makes up the Ozone layer. If the UV light hits it at this point, it will remain as O3

197
Q

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the stratospheric ozone

A

From the sun, categorised to its wavelengths either as UV-A, UV-B, or UV-C. Ozone has the ability to absorb some but not all wavelengths

198
Q

UV-A

A

Longest wavelength, between 3.15-400nm - ozone is unable to absorb this and it passes through the the ground level

199
Q

UV-B

A

Wavelength between 280-315nm - ozone absorbs most of this radiation but some pases into the troposphere below

200
Q

UV-C

A

Shortest wavelength, highest energy 100-280nm - ozone and atmosphere can absorb all radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface

201
Q

To try and prevent skin cancer due to UV exposure

A

Governments have sponsored public awareness campaigns to encourage people to protect themselves from the sun and stay inside when UV-B levels are high

202
Q

Ozone levels are measured in

A

Dobson units (DU) which is the depth the ozone molecules occupy at standard temperature and pressure and 1 atmosphere

203
Q

When ozone concentration falls

A

The molecules become more dispersed within the same area - known as “ozone thinning”

204
Q

Ozone levels are often measured using

A

Lasers or a Dobson spectrophotometer which measures intensity of certain wavelengths

205
Q

Normal ozone levels

A

Range from 300-500 Dobson units (3-5mm of thickness)

206
Q

Due to levels of insulation

A

Ozone production is highest in the tropical state sphere and is moved by prevailing atmospheric circulation systems towards the poles

207
Q

Benefits of UV radiation

A

Treats psoriasis and vitiligo (skin diseases), used as a steriliser as it kills pathogenic bacteria, air and water purifier, industrial uses in lasers, lighting, forensic analysis, stimulates production of vitamin d in animal

208
Q

Photosynthetic organisms are sensitive to UV

A

This can disrupt food pyramids

209
Q

UV-B leads to

A

Sunburn, skin cancers, cataracts formation which reduces vision and leads to blindness, immune system suppression to increase risk of infections, heath problems in animals (cancers, eye damage, lower yields in crop production (rice, soya beans), redice phytoplankton growth, reduction in seafood, reduction in forest productivity reducing amount of carbon dioxide absorbed causing CC, damage to living tissues

210
Q

Challenges with ODS

A

Long life span, lack of alternative, illegal trade, still present in discarded equipment, replacement chemicals still contain them, lack of enforcement

211
Q

Long life span of ODS

A

ODS like CFCs will have an affect long after production concludes

212
Q

ODS present in discarded equipment

A

They still remain present in discarded items such as air cons and fridges which may leak into the environment. Although some are recovered and destroyed, some still remain in unused materials.

213
Q

Lack of alternatives

A

There are no cheaper and effective alternatives to OCDs (EG: polystyrene)

214
Q

Illegal trade

A

This takes place with banned ODS. This is because of less effective replacements, higher cost of alternatives, and the cost of altering existing air con and fridge systems. This trade requires further policing and enforcement

215
Q

Replacement chemicals also contain ODS

A

Chemicals to replaces CFCs include HCFs and CHCIF2. However, although they still contain ODS, they have a shorter life of 2-20 years in comparison to 110 causing 2.5% of ozone depletion in comparison to CFCs which could still reduce ozone if used in large quantities

216
Q

Both CFCs and HCFCs are

A

Greenhouse gases (Under the Montreal Protocol HCFCs should be phased out by 2030)

217
Q

Clean up and restoration

A

Add ozone to remove chlorine from stratosphere, removal and destruction of existing ODS like CFCs

218
Q

Controlling the release

A

Recover and recycle CFCs, capture them from scrap cars. Ban production and use of main ODS. Policing to ensure compliance and stop of illegal use. National legislation and policy measures

219
Q

Altering human activity

A

replace CFCs with carbon dioxide, propane, butane or air as a propeller, replace aerosols with pump sprays, replays methyl bromide pesticides, replace ODS with cyclopentane as a blowing agent in production of foam insulation material (gas blown plastics)

ESS SL (10 decks)

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