Unit 6: Cognitive Psychology

Question 1

memory

Answer 1

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Question 2

recall

Answer 2

retrieving information that is not currently in one’s conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time

Question 3

recognition

Answer 3

identifying items previously learned

Question 4

relearning

Answer 4

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

Question 5

encoding

Answer 5

inserting information into the memory system

Question 6

storage

Answer 6

organizing new information within our memory system

Question 7

retrieval

Answer 7

extracting information from the memory system

Question 8

parallel processing

Answer 8

processing several different aspects of a problem simultaneously→the brain’s standard mode of information processing

Question 9

sensory memory

Answer 9

the immediate, brief recording of sensory information within the memory system

Question 10

short-term memory

Answer 10

the memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is either stored or forgotten

Question 11

long-term memory

Answer 11

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Question 12

working memory

Answer 12

a term for our short-term memory that accounts for the substantial active processing of sensory input that occurs at this point

Question 13

explicit memory

Answer 13

retention of facts and experiences from long-term memory that one can consciously know and declare→in 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue

Question 14

automatic processing

Answer 14

information entering our long-term memory without our conscious awareness of this

Question 15

effortful processing

Answer 15

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Question 16

metacognition

Answer 16

awareness and understanding of one’s own thought process

Question 17

implicit memory

Answer 17

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in long-term memory that are independent of conscious recollection →riding a bike

Question 18

iconic memory (EYEconic)

Answer 18

a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli

Question 19

echoic memory (ECHOic)

Answer 19

impeccable yet fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli

Question 20

chunking

Answer 20

effective memorization method by organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Question 21

mnemonics

Answer 21

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices, like acronyms and acrostics

Question 22

spacing effect

Answer 22

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than cramming

Question 23

testing effect

Answer 23

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

Question 24

shallow processing

Answer 24

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Question 25

deep processing

Answer 25

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words →more effective method than shallow processing

Question 26

semantic memory

Answer 26

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two our conscious memory systems

Question 27

episodic memory

Answer 27

explicit memory of one’s personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Question 28

hippocampus

Answer 28

where explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed

Question 29

cerebellum

Answer 29

enables nonverbal learning and memory, classical conditioning, motor learning –> implicit memories

Question 30

amygdala

Answer 30

stress hormones focus memory; stress provokes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas →the emotional arousal seals memories of certain and disrupts the memories of some future events

Question 31

memory consolidation

Answer 31

our hippocampus acts as the location for one’s brain to register and temporarily hold elements of a future memory before they migrate elsewhere in our brains →during deep sleep, the hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval

Question 32

flashbulb memory

Answer 32

a clear, sustained long-term memory of an emotionally significant moment or event →9/11, COVID-19 lockdown

Question 33

long-term potentiation (LPT)

Answer 33

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory →if a mouse is placed in a pool of murky water, it will swim about until it finds a hidden platform to climb out on, and with repetition, the mouse finds the platform easier

Question 34

priming

Answer 34

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Question 35

encoding specificity principle

Answer 35

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Question 36

mood-congruent memory

Answer 36

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood →our moods magnify our recollections and opinions

Question 37

serial position effect

Answer 37

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Question 38

anterograde amnesia

Answer 38

an inability to form new memories

Question 39

retrograde amnesia

Answer 39

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Question 40

proactive interference

Answer 40

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Question 41

retroactive interference

Answer 41

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Question 42

repression

Answer 42

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Question 43

reconsolidation

Answer 43

a process in which previously-stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Question 44

misinformation effect

Answer 44

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Question 45

source amnesia

Answer 45

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined → affects explicit memory

Question 46

déjà vu

Answer 46

cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience →source amnesia is one possible explanation for this phenomenon

Question 47

cognition

Answer 47

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Question 48

concept

Answer 48

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Question 49

prototype

Answer 49

a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to a prototype provides an efficient method for sorting items into categories

Question 51

convergent thinking

Answer 51

narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution

Question 52

divergent thinking

Answer 52

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking

Question 53

algorithm

Answer 53

a methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Question 54

heuristic

Answer 54

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually quicker but more error-prone than an algorithm

Question 55

insight

Answer 55

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Question 56

confirmation bias

Answer 56

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Question 57

fixation

Answer 57

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving

Question 58

mental set

Answer 58

the tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has worked for us the past

Question 59

intuition

Answer 59

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Question 60

representativeness heuristic

Answer 60

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Question 61

availability heuristic

Answer 61

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

Question 62

overconfidence

Answer 62

the tendency to be more confident than correct–to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Question 63

belief perserverance

Answer 63

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Question 64

framing

Answer 64

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements