Unit 6: Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
recall
retrieving information that is not currently in one’s conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time
recognition
identifying items previously learned
relearning
learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time
encoding
inserting information into the memory system
storage
organizing new information within our memory system
retrieval
extracting information from the memory system
parallel processing
processing several different aspects of a problem simultaneously→the brain’s standard mode of information processing
sensory memory
the immediate, brief recording of sensory information within the memory system
short-term memory
the memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is either stored or forgotten
long-term memory
relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
working memory
a term for our short-term memory that accounts for the substantial active processing of sensory input that occurs at this point
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences from long-term memory that one can consciously know and declare→in 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue
automatic processing
information entering our long-term memory without our conscious awareness of this
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
metacognition
awareness and understanding of one’s own thought process
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in long-term memory that are independent of conscious recollection →riding a bike
iconic memory (EYEconic)
a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli
echoic memory (ECHOic)
impeccable yet fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli
chunking
effective memorization method by organizing items into familiar, manageable units
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices, like acronyms and acrostics
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than cramming
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words →more effective method than shallow processing
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two our conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of one’s personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
where explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed
cerebellum
enables nonverbal learning and memory, classical conditioning, motor learning –> implicit memories
amygdala
stress hormones focus memory; stress provokes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas →the emotional arousal seals memories of certain and disrupts the memories of some future events
memory consolidation
our hippocampus acts as the location for one’s brain to register and temporarily hold elements of a future memory before they migrate elsewhere in our brains →during deep sleep, the hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained long-term memory of an emotionally significant moment or event →9/11, COVID-19 lockdown
long-term potentiation (LPT)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory →if a mouse is placed in a pool of murky water, it will swim about until it finds a hidden platform to climb out on, and with repetition, the mouse finds the platform easier
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood →our moods magnify our recollections and opinions
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
repression
the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously-stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined → affects explicit memory
déjà vu
cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience →source amnesia is one possible explanation for this phenomenon
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to a prototype provides an efficient method for sorting items into categories
convergent thinking
narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually quicker but more error-prone than an algorithm
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving
mental set
the tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has worked for us the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct–to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
belief perserverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements
