Unit 2: The Scientific Foundations of Psychology Flashcards
terms, definitions, and key figures of important psychological perspectives
psychology
the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of humans and animals
Why is psychology considered scientific?
Psychology is scientific because it uses empiricism (first-hand experience) and the scientific method to critically evaluate evidence
empiricism
true knowledge or justification coming from first-hand experience
–> related to the “blank slate”/nurture perspective
structuralism
an early school of psychology focused on identifying the elements of thought and mind (structures) the way early chemists developed the periodic table to classify elements
introspection
the process of looking inward to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
functionalism
assumes a purpose to all of our behaviors as serving a necessary function
–> related to natural selection
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive
nature vs. nurture issue
the debate that behavior and mental processes occur because they are innate, nature, or as a result of experience and our environment, nurture
natural selection
survival of the fittest; those with the traits best suitable for survival in an environment will continue and reproduce
basic research
scientific inquiry that aims to increase psychology’s knowledge base; pure science
applied research
scientific inquiry that aims to use psychology to solve practical problems; real-world application of science
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it; We knew it all along!
–> after a couple breaks up, friends say “they were never a good match”
overconfidence
the tendency to think we know more than we actually do
theory
a principle or body of interrelated principles that explains or predicts a number of interrelated phenomena
hypothesis
an empirically testable position, usually based on theory, that states an unexpected outcome resulting from specific conditions or assumptions
operational definition
a description of an experiment in terms of the operations by which it could be observed and measured
replication
the repetition of an original experiment or research study to verify or bolster confidence in its results
case study
an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group in order to find revealing universal principles
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other
–> if we look at study skills and GPA, we might say there is a correlation between studying and strong grades
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables
–> variables that are positively correlated are measured from r=0.1 to r=1.0, while variables that are negatively correlated are measured from r=-0.1 to r=-1.0
scatter plot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
experiment
a series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship
random assignment
assigning the participants to the groups in an experiment entirely by chance
single-blind procedure
the participants in the study are uninformed about the treatment, if any, they are receiving
double-blind procedure
the participants and the researcher are uninformed about which group receives the treatment and which does not
placebo effect
causes experimental results simply from expectations/assumptions that medication is being taken
experimental group
subjects who receive the treatment
control group
subjects do NOT receive the treatment
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is being studied
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is being measured
confounding variable
a factor other than the one being studied that might influence the results of the study
mode
the most frequently occurring data point in a distribution
mean
the mathematical average of a set of numbers; add the scores and divide by the amount of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution; arrange scores from highest to lowest with half of the data above and half below this number
–> if there is an even number of scores, add the two middle numbers and divide by 2 to find the median
range
the difference between the highest and lowest values in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary from the mean
normal curve/distribution
symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution; mean, median and mode are all the same
positively-skewed distribution
skewed to the right
negatively-skewed distribution
skewed to the left
statistical significance
statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance
p value
the mechanism to report statistical significance
–> a p value of .05 or less means that it is 95% likely the results did not occur by chance
coercion
attempting to influence another person’s actions through negative forms of power
confidentiality
a principle of professional ethics, keeping data received from an experiment or patient private
informed consent
asking permission to perform an experiment and providing an explanation of the means of said experiment
debriefing
when temporary deception is necessary to the research, it must be fully explained at the conclusion of the experiment
psychoanalytic perspective
focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and its influence on unconscious behavior
- repressed memories from early childhood
- primitive drives that are incompatible with socially accepted norms
key figures of psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud, based on his theory
behavioral perspective
focuses on observable behavior and facts rather than unseen mental processes
key figures of behaviorism
John B. Watson, based on his theory
Ivan Pavlov, B.F Skinner
cognitive perspective
focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving, language and learning
- counterargument to behaviorism; views behaviors as more than rewards and punishments
key figures of cognitive study
Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky
neurobiological perspective
focuses on influences of hormones, brain structures and chemicals, diseases, etc.
key figures of neurobiology
James Olds, Roger Sperry, George Miller
evolutionary perspective
focuses on humans thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection
key figures of evolutionary study
Charles Darwin, David Buss
humanistic perspective
focuses on human potential, free will, and the possibility of self-actualization
- personal growth and the triumph over adversity
key figures of humanism
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
socio-cultural perspective
focuses on the behavior of individuals as a result of the presence (real or imagined) of other individuals, as part of groups, or as part of a larger culture
key figures of socioculturalism
Lev Vygotsky, Albert Bandura
