Unit 6

Question 1

Developmental Psychology

Answer 1

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Question 2

Longitudinal Study

Answer 2

A research design that examines how individuals develop by studying the same sample over a long period of time

Question 3

Cross-Sectional Study

Answer 3

A research design conducted at a single point in time, comparing groups of differing ages to arrive at conclusions about development.

Question 4

Nature vs. Nurture

Answer 4

refers to the ongoing debate about whether an individual’s traits and behaviors are primarily shaped by their genetic makeup (“nature”) or by their environment and experiences (“nurture”) throughout life

Question 5

Continuity vs. Stages

Answer 5

“continuity” refers to the idea that development occurs as a gradual, continuous process with no distinct stages, while “stages” signifies a theory that development happens in a series of separate, distinct phases with qualitative leaps between them

Question 6

Stability vs. Change

Answer 6

“stability” refers to the idea that certain personality traits or behaviors tend to remain relatively consistent throughout a person’s life, while “change” indicates that aspects of a person can evolve and significantly alter over time, particularly in response to experiences and environmental factors

Question 7

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development

Answer 7

“continuous development” refers to the idea that development occurs as a gradual, ongoing process with no distinct stages, while “discontinuous development” suggests that development happens in a series of distinct stages with noticeable shifts between them, like steps on a staircase

Question 8

Teratogens

Answer 8

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Question 9

Habituation

Answer 9

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Question 10

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Answer 10

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features.

Question 11

Maturation

Answer 11

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Question 12

Critical Period

Answer 12

a specific window of time early in life where an organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences and must experience certain stimuli to develop certain skills or behaviors properly

Question 13

Adolescence

Answer 13

a stage of development where individuals transition from the concrete operational stage to the formal operational stage, and develop new cognitive structures and introspective abilities

Question 14

Puberty

Answer 14

a natural process that marks a child’s transition into adulthood through physical and hormonal changes

Question 15

Menopause

Answer 15

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Question 16

Socialization

Answer 16

the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of their society, allowing them to function effectively within their culture and social groups

Question 17

Gender Identity

Answer 17

an individual’s personal sense of their own gender, whether they identify as male, female, or something else

Question 18

Social Learning Theory

Answer 18

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Question 19

Sexual Orientation

Answer 19

refers to our enduring patterns of sexual attraction

Question 20

Simon Levay’s Research

Answer 20

Neuroscientist Simon LeVay (1991) studied sections of the hypothalamus taken from deceased gay and straight people. He found a cell cluster that was indeed reliably larger in straight men than in straight women and gay men.; studying a specific brain region called the INAH3 in the hypothalamus, finding a noticeable difference in its size between the brains of homosexual and heterosexual men, suggesting a potential biological basis for sexual orientation

Question 21

Genetic Influences on Sexual Orientation

Answer 21

Twin studies, family studies, and molecular genetic studies are three examples of evidence that suggest a genetic influence on sexual orientation; research suggests a significant genetic influence on sexual orientation, with twin studies indicating that a moderate portion of variance in sexual orientation is attributable to genetic factors, meaning genes play a role in determining a person’s sexual attraction, but not the sole factor; environmental influences also contribute to its development.

Question 22

Prenatal Influences on Sexual Orientation

Answer 22

exposure to sex hormones, particularly testosterone, during fetal development in the womb can play a role in shaping a person’s sexual orientation later in life

Question 23

Assimilation

Answer 23

the cognitive process where new information or experiences are incorporated into an individual’s existing mental framework or schema

Question 24

Accommodation

Answer 24

a term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas

Question 25

Schemas

Answer 25

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Question 26

Sensorimotor Stage

Answer 26

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities ( reference - Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning.

Question 27

Object Permanence

Answer 27

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Question 28

Preoperational Stage

Answer 28

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Question 29

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Answer 29

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) → Experiencing the world through senses/actions; object permanence develops.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) → Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and pretend play.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) → Logical thinking, conservation, and classification.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) → Abstract, hypothetical, and systematic reasoning.

Question 30

Conservation

Answer 30

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Question 31

Pretend Play

Answer 31

a type of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios and act out different roles and events

Question 32

Parallel Play

Answer 32

When children are placed next to each other doing separate activities with ought communicating on each other and completely functional on their own.

Question 33

Egocentrism

Answer 33

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

Question 34

Concrete Operational Stage

Answer 34

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

Question 35

Lev Vygotsky and Scaffolding

Answer 35

refers to the temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person (like a teacher or parent) to help a learner successfully complete a task within their “Zone of Proximal Development”

Question 36

Zone of Proximal Development

Answer 36

the range of tasks a learner can accomplish with guidance from a more knowledgeable person, but cannot yet do independently

Question 37

Theory of Mind

Answer 37

the cognitive ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions

Question 38

Walter Mischel Marshmallow Test and Delayed
Gratification

Answer 38

a famous experiment that examines the concept of “delayed gratification” - the ability to resist an immediate small reward in favor of a larger reward later on

Question 39

Dementia

Answer 39

a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes

Question 40

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence in Relation to Age

Answer 40

older adults often demonstrate stronger crystallized intelligence compared to fluid intelligence

( “Fluid Intelligence” refers to a person’s ability to solve new problems, reason abstractly, and effectively use information in novel situations; “crystallized intelligence” refers to the ability to apply previously learned knowledge and information to solve new problems. )

Question 41

Phonemes

Answer 41

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Question 42

Morphemes

Answer 42

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Question 43

Grammar

Answer 43

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Question 44

Chomsky and Universal

Answer 44

“Chomsky” refers to linguist Noam Chomsky, and “universal grammar” is his theory that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language, meaning they have a pre-programmed understanding of basic grammatical structures that allows them to learn any language they are exposed to, regardless of its specific rules

Question 45

Syntax

Answer 45

the rules governing how words are arranged and combined to form grammatically correct sentences

Question 46

Nonverbal Gestures

Answer 46

physical movements of the body, like hand motions or facial expressions, used to convey information or emotions without speaking words, essentially acting as a form of communication without verbal language

Question 47

Cooing

Answer 47

the early stage of infant vocalization

Question 48

Babbling

Answer 48

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

Question 49

One-Word Stage

Answer 49

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Question 50

Telegraphic Speech

Answer 50

the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram — “go car” — using mostly nouns and verbs.

Question 51

Overgeneralization of
Language Rules

Answer 51

when a child learning language applies a grammatical rule too broadly, often resulting in incorrect usage by extending the rule to irregular words or situations where it doesn’t apply, demonstrating their understanding of a general pattern but not the exceptions to it

Question 52

Linguistic Relativism

Answer 52

the idea that language influences the way we think.

Question 53

Ecological Systems Theory

Answer 53

a framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that explains how a person’s development is influenced by various interconnected environmental systems, including their immediate surroundings (microsystem), interactions between those systems (mesosystem), broader societal factors (macrosystem), and changes over time (chronosystem), essentially highlighting how a person’s environment at different levels shapes their behavior and development.

Question 54

Microsystem

Answer 54

Immediate, direct-contact groups (e.g., home, school, community)

Question 55

Mesosystem

Answer 55

Relationships between microsystem groups (e.g., parents and peers)

Question 56

Exosystem

Answer 56

Environments that indirectly affect a person (e.g., a parent’s workplace)

Question 57

Macrosystem

Answer 57

Cultural influences (e.g., values; beliefs; economic and political systems)

Question 58

Chronosystem

Answer 58

Life stage and related events (e.g., moving; economic recession)

Question 59

Stranger Anxiety

Answer 59

a developmental stage in infancy where a child becomes fearful or distressed when encountering unfamiliar people

Question 60

Attachment

Answer 60

an emotional tie with another person

Question 61

Harry Harlow and Contact
Comfort

Answer 61

a famous experiment conducted by psychologist Harry Harlow, where he demonstrated that infant monkeys preferred a soft, cloth surrogate mother (providing “contact comfort”) over a wire mother that provided food, proving that physical closeness and touch are crucial for attachment and emotional well-being, even more so than basic needs like nourishment

Question 62

Imprinting

Answer 62

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Question 63

Mary Ainsworth Strange
Situation

Answer 63

Mary Ainsworth (1979) designed the strange situation. She observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months. Later she observed the 1-year-old infants in a strange situation (usually a laboratory playroom) with and without their mothers. - a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed.

Question 64

Secure Attachment

Answer 64

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.

Question 65

Insecure attachment

Answer 65

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.

Question 66

Avoidant Attachment

Answer 66

people experience discomfort when getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others.

Question 67

Anxious Attachment

Answer 67

people constantly crave acceptance but remain alert to signs of possible rejection

Question 68

Disorganized Attachment

Answer 68

show no consistent behavior during these separations and reunions.

Question 69

Temperament

Answer 69

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Question 70

ACE (Adverse Childhood
Experiences)

Answer 70

Such as severe deprivation or abuse, can slow development, but genetic growth patterns come “factory-installed” — they are inborn.

Question 71

Self-Concept

Answer 71

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Question 72

Authoritarian Parenting
Style

Answer 72

A strict parenting approach where parents enforce high expectations and rigid rules. They often prioritize obedience and discipline, often relying on punishment with limited warmth and responsiveness to the child’s needs.

Question 73

Permissive Parenting Style

Answer 73

( free range children but not neglectful ) A relaxed approach to parenting where parents show warmth and responsiveness but have few rules and low expectations. they avoid enforcing strict boundaries, allowing children significant freedom and often indulging their desires.

Question 74

Neglectful Parenting Style

Answer 74

parents are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless and inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children.

Question 75

Authoritative Parenting
Style

Answer 75

parents are confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

Question 76

Stage theory of psychosocial
development (Erickson)

Answer 76

identifies 8 stages in which a healthy individual should pass through from birth to death.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year)
Infants rely on caregivers for basic needs like food, comfort, and affection. Consistent care builds trust in the world, while neglect or unpredictable care fosters fear and mistrust of others.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years)
Toddlers learn to assert independence by exploring, making choices, and gaining control (e.g., toilet training). Encouragement fosters autonomy, but over-criticism or control leads to self-doubt and feelings of shame.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years)
Children begin to assert power through play and decision-making. Encouraging initiative builds leadership skills, while discouraging actions or excessive control fosters guilt and hesitation in taking risks.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 years)
Kids focus on mastering tasks and gaining competence in school and social interactions. Success builds pride and industry, while repeated failure or lack of support leads to feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years)
Teens explore self-identity, values, and future roles. Clear identity develops through self-reflection and support; confusion arises when expectations or personal identity feel unclear or pressured.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years)
Young adults seek deep relationships and emotional connection. Success results in healthy intimacy, while fear of vulnerability or rejection leads to loneliness and isolation.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years)
Adults focus on leaving a legacy through work, family, and contributing to society. Fulfillment arises from generativity, while stagnation involves self-centeredness or lack of purpose.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years)
In reflecting on life, those who accept accomplishments and failures feel integrity. Regret over missed opportunities causes despair and fear of mortality.

Question 77

Ambivalent Attachment

Answer 77

another type of insecure attachment where individuals crave closeness but also fear rejection or abandonment

Question 78

Social identity

Answer 78

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

Question 79

Racial/ethnic identity

Answer 79

physical differences that groups and cultures consider socially significant.

Question 80

religious identity

Answer 80

the sense of belonging and self-identification that individuals associate with a particular religion or belief system.

Question 81

occupational identity

Answer 81

Describes an individual’s sense of self and identity based on their chosen occupation or profession.

Question 82

familiar identity

Answer 82

the sense of belonging and shared values that an individual derives from their family, including their family history, traditions, beliefs, and characteristics that contribute to their perception of themselves as part of a larger family unit

Question 83

possible selves

Answer 83

the versions of themselves they imagine becoming in the future — may facilitate their identity formation

Question 84

Marcia’s Identity achievement

Answer 84

a committed sense of self, and a desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that contributes to the world beyond oneself (Fuligni, 2019; Marcia, 1966, 1980).

Question 85

identity diffusion

Answer 85

without a clear commitment to a particular identity and perhaps with little sense of who they are.

Question 86

identity foreclosure

Answer 86

a premature commitment to an identity with little exploration (“I’m a jock”)

Question 87

identity moratorium

Answer 87

teens more actively seek a meaningful identity

Question 88

Identity formation

Answer 88

Researchers have contended that identity formation proceeds through a series of stages, as adolescents explore and gradually commit to who they will become. They begin in the diffusion stage, without a clear commitment to a particular identity and perhaps with little sense of who they are. This is followed by foreclosure: a premature commitment to an identity with little exploration (“I’m a jock”). In the moratorium stage, teens more actively seek a meaningful identity. Finally, they reach identity achievement — a committed sense of self, and a desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that contributes to the world beyond oneself (Fuligni, 2019; Marcia, 1966, 1980).