Unit 5 Psych Flashcards
Recall
retrieving info
recognition
identifying info
relearn
learning more quickly when learning a second time
encoding
getting info to the brain
storage
retaining info
retrieval
getting the info back out later
iconic memory
fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli
echoic memory
fleeting sensory memory of auditory stimulus
Divided attention
simultaneous attention, allows multiple information processing for poor retention
Maintenance rehearsal
short term memory can be increased from 6-12 seconds long to 30 seconds by using
Central Executive
controlling system/CEO that monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components. Direction attention
Visuospatial sketchpad
inner eyes. Deals with visual and spatial information from either sensory memory or LTM
Phonological loop
articulatory control system: linked to speech production, inner voice, rehearsing information
Episodic Buffer:
temporary and passive display store until info is needed. For both visual and auditory memory. Info from sensory input and LTM
Effortful processing and explicit memory (declarative memory)
Semantic (facts/knowledge)
Episodic (experienced events)
Automatic processing and implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)
Classically conditioned association
Procedural memory
Space, time, (or sequence), frequency
Prospective memory:
memory about the future
Metacognition:
refers to the self-monitoring of one’s own memory
Associative Network Memory Model
representation that views memory as consisting of a set of nodes and interconnecting links where nodes represent stored info or concepts and links represent strength of association between this info or concepts
Priming
a phenomenon in which exposure to one stimulus influences how a person responds to a subsequent related stimulus
Context Dependent memory:
putting yourself back in the context of encoding can help retrieval
Overlearning
can retrieve memory even when we are not in the context of encoding
state-Dependent memory:
being in the same state as the time of encoding
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
Serial position effect:
recall best recency effect and primacy effect items in a list
Shallow processing
a process on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Deep processing
process semantically, based on the meaning of the words; better retention
Basal Ganglia
cluster of neurons/neural structures involved in motor movement, facilitates the formation of procedural memories for skills, receives messages from motor cortex but does not send back info
Frontal Lobes and hippocampus process…
explicit memory
Cerebellum
processes and stores classically conditioned memories, when damaged patients cannot show reflexes
Long Term Potentiation:
an increase in a cells firing potential/efficiency; a neural basis to learning a memory
Flashbulb memory:
a clear detailed and sustained memory of an emotionally significant event
Henry Molaison
surgeons removed much of his hippocampus in order to stop persistent seizures
Encoding failure
what we fail to encode we will not remember
Storage Decay
even after careful encoding, forgetting can happened due to storage decay
Ebbinghaus
tested how much he forgets after learning nonsense syllables, found out that the course of forgetting is rapid initially, but then levels off with time
Retrieval Failure
forgetting is not memories faded but memories unretrieved
Older adults are more to experience tip-of-the-tongue forgetting
can be retrieved when a retrieval cue is given
Proactive interference
forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall on new info
retroactive interference-
backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old info
Positive Transfer
old memories often facilitate forming new memory
Sigmund Freud would argue that forgetting happens due to repression:
motivated forgetting
Reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again
Misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted ones memory of an event
Elizabeth Loftus
claims that learning questions and post-event information may influence the accuracy of recall
Imagination effect:
repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions/event can create false memories
Source amnesia:
fault memory for how, when, or where, information was learned or imagined (aka failure of source monitoring)
Deja Vu
the eerie sense that “i’ve experienced this before”
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, idea or people
High chair, reclining char, office chair
Schema:
a cognitive framework for one’s knowledge about people, place, objects, and events Chair- a thing for sitting
Prototype
a mental image of the best example for a concept
Bird: crow
Creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
Convergent thinking:
narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution
Divergent thinking:
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking diverges in different directions
Trial and Error-
experimenting with various methods
Algorithm-
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics-
a simple thinking strategy that that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Intuition-
an effortless, immediate automatic feelings or thoughts, involves unconscious mind
Representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
Availability heuristic:
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common
Framing
the way an issues is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Overconfidence:
the tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimation of the accuracy of our beliefs and judgment
Confirmation bias
once a belief is formed it is hard to change; we prefer evidence that supports the existing belief
Motivated Reasoning:
Rather than using the evidence to draw conclusions we use our conclusions to assess evidence
Belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Ex. flat earthers
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Mental set:
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past, is a prime example of fixation
Functional fixedness:
failure to recognize that object typically not used for a particular purpose can serve that purpose
Language
our spoke, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Symbolic
represents objects, ideas, actions
Generative
allows the speaker to generate infinite sentences
Structure
rules of order and presentation
Noam Chomsky
argued that humans share universal grammar, language is unlearned human trait, we are not predisposed to learn a specific language
Phonemes
the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morphemes
the smallest unit that carry meaning; a word of a part of a word
Grammar:
a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
Semantics
is the languages set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
Syntax:
set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Receptive stage:
4 months differences in speech sounds
Recognize object names (6 months)
Babbling stage
Productive stage:
1st bday- one-word stage
2nd bday- two-word stage
Telegraphic speech: follows rules of syntax
Over Regularizing- “we goed”
Aphasia:
impairment of language, usually cause by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s or Wernicke’s area
Benjamin Whorf
argued that language shapes thoughts
Linguistic determinism
: language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
Linguistic influence
that language influences thoughts thus our thinking and world would be relative to our cultural language
Interplay of thought and language
the traffic runs both ways
Intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Francis Galton
“Intellectual strengths”- measured reation, time, sensory acuity, muscular power/body proportion
results showd that well-regarded adults and students DID NOT outscore others
Alfred Binet
mental age: the age level of an individual’s mental ability
Lewis Terman
applied Binet’s test to Cali children, adapted some of the original items (ex. age)
Stanford-Binet
used American revision of Binet’s test
believed that students w above average IQ would be more successful
William Stern
intelligence quotient
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
David Wechsler developed the most widely used individual intelligence test
- og IQ formula worked for children not adults
- compare tests w people the same age
- 15 subject
- overall intelligence score and individual scores
Psychometrics
field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement
- knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits
Intelligence Test
method of assessing an individuals mental abilities and comprising them with those of others, using numerical scores
Achievement tests
a test desigined to asses what a person has learned (eg AP tests)
Aptitude Tests
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance, measures the capacity to learn (eg. SAT)
3 essential principles of test construction
standardization
reliability
validity
Standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and
meaningful scores by comparison with the performance
of a pretested group
Flynn Effect
refers to the worldwide phenomenon of rising of
intelligence test performance
Flynn’s idea
due to our need to develop new mental skills to cope with modern environments
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results
Test-retest reliability
The degree to which the test
yields consistent results after repeated testing
Split-half reliability
The degree to which the test yields the same number of correct or incorrect answers on each half
Internal consistency reliability
The degree to which the
test yields consistent results over various items within
the test
Inter-rater reliability
The degree to which the rater’s observations and scores are consistent with each other
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
content validity
the extent to which a test measures the behavior/knowledge that is of interest (eg drivers test has high b/c tests the actual tasks the driver would do)
predictive validity
the extent to which a test predicts the behavior/knowedge it is desgined to predict (eg SAT scores used to predict the students’ academic performance in college)
Charles Spearman’s general intelligence
believed we have general intelligence “g factor”
those who score high in one area typically score high in other areas
Thrunstones Primary Abilites
7 primary mental abilities
Garner’s Multiple Intelligences
8 relatively independent intelligences
later he proposed 9th: existential intelligence- the ablility to ponder larger questions about life, death, and existance
Savant syndrome
supports multiple intelligences, 4/5 are male, have autism
Sternbergs 3 Intelligences
- Analytical: assessed by
intelligence tests with single right answers. Such tests
predict school grades reasonably well but vocational success more modestly. - Creative: demonstrated in innovative tasks; the ability
to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas - Practical: required for everyday tasks that have
multiple solutions
Emotional intelligence
The ability to perceive,
understand, manage, and use emotions
Criticism
too much of a stretch and emphasis on feelings and relationships. If stretched too far to cover every aspect of life, the word intelligence will lose its meaning
Crystallized Intelligence
Our accumulated knowledge
and verbal skills (e.g. vocabulary and analogies tests)
- increases w age
work best in 40s and 50s
Social reasoning skills
increase w age
- Ability to take multiple perspectives and to offer
helpful wisdom in times of social conflict
* Adults’ decisions are less distorted by negative
emotions
Fluid intelligence
Our ability to reason speedily and
abstractly (e.g. novel logic problems)
- decreases w age
- 20s and 30s
Cross-sectional study for intelligence
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal study for intelligence
research that follows and retests the same people over time
Limitation for cross-sectional
They do not show how one
individual’s intelligence change over the course of life
Limitation for longitudinal
Not all participants stick with the research until the end. The participants that survived to the end may be the healthier and brighter people.
Low extreme : Intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test
score of 70 or below AND difficulty adapting to the demands of life:
* Conceptually—language, reading, time, money, numbers
* Socially —interpersonal skills, following basic rules, avoid being victimized
* Practically—health and personal care, occupational skill and travel
down syndrome
a condition on mild to severe intellectual disability and associated
with physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
high extreme
Children whose intelligence test scores indicated extraordinary academic gifts mostly thrive.
gifted child program
However, critics note that tracking by academic aptitude sometimes
creates a self-fulfilling prophecy: implicitly labeling some children as “ungifted” and denying them opportunities for enriched education can widen the achievement gap between ability groups.
stereotype threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype (This is an example of self-fulfilling prophecy).
