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Biology 101 > Unit 5 - Cellular Respiration, Digestion & Sleep > Flashcards

Unit 5 - Cellular Respiration, Digestion & Sleep Flashcards

1
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

Breakdown of organic molecules to make ATP

equation:
Glucose + 6Oxygen = 6 Carbon + 6 Water + 30-32 ATPs

converting the potential energy is stored in chemical bonds of food molecules to energy of the cell (ATP)

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2
Q

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

A

Aerobic = Cellular Respiration with oxygen

Anaerobic = cellular respiration without oxygen ( ex: fermentation)

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3
Q

Phosphorylation

A

going from ADP to ATP or the other way
- adding a phosphate to ADP = ATP
- ATP can be hydrolized to get ADP + a phosphate

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4
Q

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

A
  • involves a substrate
  • enzyme catalyzed ATP Synthesis where an enzyme binds to a phosphorylated substrate (molecules with a phosphate group attached to it) and an ADP molecule

the products:
- ATP + product
- dephosphorlyzed (phosphate removed)

**Substrate-Level Phosphorylation is used to make all ATP that happens during Glycolysis and the citric Acid Cycle

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5
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Outer Mitochondrial Membrane

Inner mitochondrial membrane
- has folds (cristae)
- cristae increase the surface area
- ETC happens in this

  • matrix
  • inter-membrane space
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6
Q

Electron Shuttles

A

NADH and FADH2
- they carry the electrons to the electron transport chain

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7
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • in cytosol
    2 phases:
    1. Energy Investment Phase
  • use glucose which has 6 carbon molecules
  • need to use 2 ATPS
  1. Energy Payoff Phase
    - you get 4 ATPs (made by substrate-level phosphorylation)
    - net gain of ATPs = 2
    - make NADH (electron carrier - the electrons attach to NAD+ which makes NADH)
    - NADH goes into mitochondria
    - 2 pyruvates made and go into mitochondria

net gain:
- 2 ATPs
- 2 pyruvate molecules (two 3 carbon molecules)
- 2 NADH
- 2 H+ (proton)

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8
Q

Pyruvate Processing

A

happens in the Matrix of mitochondria

pyruvates - get broken down into Acetyle-COa, in that reaction we make:
- Co2, acetyl-coa (1 each time - they get put into citric acid cycle), NADH
**this process happens for 1 pyruvate but we have 2 so we do this twice

results:
- 2 CO2
- 2 NADH

  • the CO2 molecule diffuses out of the cell
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9
Q

Citric Acid Cycle

A

happens in the Matrix of mitochondria

  • acytel Coa goes through the citric acid cycle (each goes through) - it binds to a bigger molecule and then it gets broken down
  • we make ATP (one for each acetyl-coa) make by susbstrate level phosphorylation
  • release Co2 (2)
  • release NADH (3)
  • release FADH (1)

**you do the citric acid cycle twice

results after 2 times:
- 4 CO2
- 6 NADH
- 2 FADH2 (carries electrons formely found in glucose)
- 2 ATPs (made by substrate-level phosphorylation)

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10
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Electron transport and chemiosmosis
- use energy stored in form of proton gradient to do cellular work like ATP synthesis

  • a proton gradient will form to make ATP
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11
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

there’s the outer mitochondrial membrane and the protons are in the matrix and the inter membrane space

  • use this to get the majority of the ATPs
  • the electrons move from the protein complexes by electron carriers

*only FADH2 drops off electrons at protein complex 2

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12
Q

Steps of the Electron Transport Chain

A

1) electrons carried by NADH are transfered to the ETC
- electrons move down the ETC
*oxygen is the final electron acceptor
*H20 is released once electrons reach oxygen – the water can diffuse around the body

2) proton complexes 1, 3, 4 are also proton pumps
- they pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrance space which makes a proton gradient
- the pumps use active transport
- the pumps get their energy from the movement of electrons going down the ETC

3) the protons flow from the inter membrane space, to the matrix and then through ATP Synthase
- this causes ATP Synthase to make lots of ATP

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12
Q

Electron Transport Chain Results

A
  • we make an additional 26-28 ATPs from oxidative phosphorylation
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13
Q

FADH2 making less ATP

A

FADH2 makes less ATP because they deposit electrons later in the ETC and pump fewer protons across the membrane

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14
Q
A
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15
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16
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A
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17
Q

If you Can’t Build Up Proton Gradient

A
  • it makes the membrane leaky
  • if there’s no electron movement, we can’t make the gradient so we can’t make ATP
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17
Q

Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport

A

both used in cellular respiration

  • active transport = used to pump the protons from the matrix of mitochonria to the inter membrane space
  • facilitated diffisuon = used to diffuse H20 to move around the body
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17
Q

Anaerobic Respiration

A

oxygen not present
- ATP still has to be made
- can do fermentation instead to get a little bit of ATP

glucose goes through glycolysis, pyruvate

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17
Q

Exchange

A

exchange happens as substances dissolved in an aqueous solution move across the membrane of each cell

single-celled organisms:
- exchange is easy for them
- its membrane is in direct contact with its environment

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17
Q

Complex Animals and Exchange

A

they have specialized exchange surfaces
- they have lots of cell layers
- diffusion wouldn’t get to them
- they have surface layers that don’t allow for the material to get to it
- a lot of animals live on land (exchange has to occur in moist environments)

  • made of living cells (dead cells don’t do exchange)
  • thin (made of epithelial tissue)
  • large surface area
  • can be internal and external
  • connected to circulatory system (not always)
  • almost all complex animals have blood vessels connected to exchange surfaces but not insects
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17
Q

Simple Animals and Exchange

A

they can have direct exchange with environment
- they have a thin flat shape (they have few cell layers)
- live in a moist environment

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17
Q

Systems involved during Exchange

A

Digestion
Respiration
Circulation
Excretion

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17
Filter Feeding
pass water thru specialized filtering organs and feed by straining suspended particles and digestible matter from water - filter out the stuff in the water ex: Flamingos, whale sharks
17
Epithelial Cells
- made of specialized cells that line our internal and external body surfaces - usually 1 layer thick - they don't keep the internal exchange surfaces moist interstitial fluid = cells of our body are surrounded by that fluid so the cells are moist
17
4 Stages of Food Processing
1. Ingestion (the act of eating) 2. Digestion - the breakdown of food into molecules small enough to absorb 3. absorption 4. elimination
17
Why Do We Eat?
1. building blocks for biological molecules 2. essential nutrients (essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals) - many are important for enzyme function 3. Food is chemical energy (electrons) to make ATP
17
Substrate Feeders
live in or on their food source ex: beetles that eat animal caucuses
17
Fluid Feeders
obtain nutrients from fluids of other organisms (blood, nectar, sap) ex: hummingbirds, mosquitos
17
Bulk Feeding
obtain nutrients from large piece of food - humans are this ex: lions eat meat
17
Chemical Digestion
chemical digestion = chemical breakdown of food by hydrolytic enzymes - digestive system secretes hydrolytic enzymes into digestive compartments to make food before hydrolyzed and after: - polysacharrides --> Monosaccharides - Polypeptides --> amino acids - Triglycerides --> glycerol and fatty acids - Nucleic acids --> nucleotides
17
Extracellular Digestion - digestion in food compartments
in most animals, hydrolysis happens by extracellular digestion hydrabody: - these cells secrete hydrolytic enzymes - the food taken in by the gastrovascular cavity (compartment with one opening) is digested, then the smaller food particles get engulfed by the cells that line the hydrabody **food comes in and waste leaves from the mouth -- one place
17
Teeth
teeth are important for mechanical digestion plant eaters= - teeth are flat and have ridges - have to break up the plant material meat eaters = ripping and tearing - sharp teeth omnivores = humans - front teeth are sharp for meat eating - back teeth are flat for plant eating
17
Intracellular Digestion - Food Vacuoles
simplest digestive compartments - food particle is engulfed by the cell and the food vacuole fuses with the lysosome and digestion occurs inside the cell (phagocytosis)
18
Mucus Cell
- secrete mucus that lubricates food, blocks pathogens from getting in body, and is a barrier
18
Alimentary Canals
alimentary canals = digestive tube with 2 openings - mouth and anus - food moves in 1 direction so the alimentary canal tube is made up of specialized compartments that carry out different functions (storage, digestion, and absorption)
18
Mechanical Digestion
mechanical digestion = the physical breakdown of food molecules - the food is broken up so that the hydrolytic enzymes can be broken up and work faster so chemical digestion can work faster - when the food is broken up, there's now lots of surface area for the hydrolytic enzymes to work
18
Saliva
important for chemical digestion - we're always making some saliva (there's more when you're eating) - contains salivary amylase (Breaks down carbs!!) - mucus lubricates our food so it doesn't hurt to swallow mucus has antibacterial agents - line of defense - these can kill potential pathogens
18
Parietal Cell
- releases H+ and CL - makes HCL
18
Pancreatic Nucleases
nucleic acids - work in the duodenum
18
Stomach
- folds in the stomach (gastric folds) expand and contract - the stomach does storage and digestion mechanical digestion = churning/peristalsis chemical digestion = gastric juice
18
HCL
hydrochloric acid - ph = 2 - kills bacteria bc ph = 2 - denatures proteins (proteins in meat unfold in the HCL bc they can't fold at ph = 2) - activates protease = digests proteins
18
Duodenum
acid chyme (gastric juice) leaves the stomach and goes to the small intestine duodenum - ph = 6 - 1st part of the small intestine - part of the acid chyme squirts into it - biocarbonate neutralizes duodenum which is why its ph = 6 (enzyme can now work)
18
Pancreatic Proteases
proteins - trypsin, chymotrypsin - made by pancreatic cells and made in inactive form - secreted in inactive form - trypsiongen - chymotrysinogen - activated in duodenum
18
Pepsin
protease - an enzyme that digests food
18
Why don't Pepsin and HCL damage cells?
components of gatric juice (HCL and pepsin) are inactive until they get released into lumen of stomach - gastric juice not released until food arrives in stomach - mucus cells secrete protective mucus - rapid mitosis (new stomach lining often)
18
Pepsin and Pepsionogen Positive Feedback Loop
gastric juice = pepsin + HCL pepsinogen = inactive for of pepsin - the active site is blocked by amino acids - once it comes in contact with HCL, it becomes pepsin (active protein) pepsin = active protein - you keep turning pepsiongen into pepsin until you don't have any more food left to digest
18
Chief Cell
have the gene for pepsin - make pepsinogen (inactive pepsin)
18
Bile
- made in liver - stored in the gall bladder **if you don't have a gall bladder, than you can't control how much bile is being sent from the liver to the duodenum
18
Small Intestine
chemical digestion = in duodenum, aided by accessory organs mechanical digestion = uses bile (chemical) to emulsify (break down into smaller parts) fats - by breaking it in smaller fats, you increase the surface area so there's more lipase to work on the smaller pieces - Absorption occurs across in the wall of the small intestine - small intestine = 6 ft - lots of folds to increase surface area - large circular folds
18
Bicarbonate
ph = 8-8.5 - biocarbonate from pancreas neutralizes acid chyme bc it has a high ph
18
Large Intestine
- has villi and blood vessels - reabsorbs water from food - waste (feces) becomes more solid bc the water moves from the interior into the blood vessels - rectum stores feces until elimination from body *microbiome - lots of the microbiome is in the large intestine
18
Pancreatic Amylase
carbohydrates - made in pancreas
18
Fats Digested by Lacteals
- fats get emulsified by bile - lipase breaks down things weirdly - go across brush border - the broken down fats get made into triglycerides - they go into the lacteal chylomicron = complex - tranfers the triglycerides (on the inside bc they're hydrophobic) - complex goes from the cell into the lacteal and then into the blood stream
18
Pancreatic Lipase
fats - any enzyme made in pancreas - breaks down lipids - helps digest fats
19
Villus
- each villus has a lacteal - each villus has blood vessels - projections of the whole sheet of epithelial cells brush border = the microvilli that have all of the folds - food comes into contact with it - ptoteins, carbs, and nucleic acids are all digested into the blood - fats go to the lacteals and then circulate into the cell after **food comes through the brush border, thru the cells, and into a circulatory vessel
19
Intestinal Adaptations
- cellulose walls are hard to digest herbivores: plant eating - longer small intestine (more surface area for absorption) - more time for chemical digestion - larger cecum carnivores: meat eating - shorter small intestine - smaller cecum cecum = anerobic chamber - contains cellulose-digesting microbes *herbivores need a bigger cecum bc they eat more cellulose
20
Ruminants
ruminants = cows, camels, deer rumen = like the cecum but for these animals cows: - chew the grass, swallows it, and goes into the rumen - cow regurgitates the food up into its mouth, swallows it again, and the food now goes into the digestive system **rumen contains prokaryotes with cellulose-digesting enzymes
21
Homeostasis
maintenance of internal balance - even if things change on the outside of the cell, the inside of the cell stays the same *it's like negative feedback NOT positive feedback
22
Positive Feedback
the product of the reaction leads to an increase in that reaction - moves us away from homeostasis ex: food digestion - food in stomach, chief cells release pepsiongen, HCL activates pepsinogen, pepsin produced - we turn pepsionogen into pepsin again and again until all of the food is digested - protein digested
23
Hormones
hormone = chemical messanger released into bloodstream that acts on distant target cells ex: cells of our pancreas - hormone binds to the receptor - signal transduction pathway - response = cell releases digestive enzymes - only releases the enzymes once it gets the signal to release stuff - if no signal, then no release of enzymes
24
Insulin and Glucose Homeostasis
blood glucose levels rise too high: - beta cells release insulin into the blood - liver cells take up glucose and stores it as glycogen - blood glucose level declines blood glucose levels too low: - alpha cells release glucagon into blood - liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood - blood glucose levels rise
25
Diabetes
diabetes = body doesn't produce or properly respond to insulin so they have high blood sugar Type 1: - autoimmune disorder (recognizes something normal as abnormal) - destroys insulin-producing cells from the pancreas - no insulin made - elevated blood sugar levels treatment: inject insulin into the body Type 2: - body cells don't respond to insulin - elevated blood sugar levels (bc you can't pull glucose out of the bloodstream) risk factors: - age - genetics - obesity - lack of sleep
26
Leptin
Leptin = hormone and protein that tells the brain when you're full and to stop eating - after eating, the stomach and small intestine release leptin - fat cells secrete leptin if you gain weight: - bigger fat cells - more leptin secreted - decreased food intake - increase metabolic rate if you lose weight: - smaller fat cells - less leptin secreted - increase food intake - decreased metabolic rate
27
Mutation in Gene Encoding Leptin
leptin not made - appetite not supressed - you become obese
28
Mutation in Gene Encoding Leptin Receptor
- in most humans, the defect is in the leptin receptor - leptin made but target cells can't respond so appetite not suppressed - this is like Type 2 Diabetes **can't inject leptin to lose weight
29
Sleep
- happens at night - eyes closed - postural muscles relax - brain activity changes - can enhance our memories why we need sleep: - helps brain renew - repair cells and get rid of toxins **sleep maintains homeostasis in our body **all animals sleep **7-9 hours
30
Unihemispheric Sleep
they sleep with half of their brain off - they're always doing stuff ex: dolphins
31
Brain Activity during sleep
- brain is still active - sleep is dynamic - brain is highly active at times - our brain goes thru diff cycles and is busy
32
5 Phases of Sleep
1. Light sleep - jerking, sleep where you know what's around you 2. eye movement stops, brain waves slower 3. very slow, delta brainwaves (high waves) 4. deep sleep - repair and regeneration - if you wake up from deep sleep you don't know where you are 5. REM (rapid eye movement) - rapid breathing, eye movement, dreaming stages 3-4 = deep sleep **we cycle thru the diff stages
33
Sleep Deprivation
- these ppl think they're okay but they're not and may make poor decisions (drive when they're too tired) - can be pre-diabetic - emotional brain center is heightened *as we age, deep sleep stage decreases (may be 20 mins instead of 5 hours)

Biology 101 (8 decks)

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