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Psychology > Unit 4/Part 1: Learning > Flashcards

Unit 4/Part 1: Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

Define learning.

A

A relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.
- Relatively permanent: must last for some time.
- change: must be a difference
- behaviour: learning focuses on skills, actions, emotional responses (NOT remembering info, although memory is critical to learning)
- experience: must be exposed/taught/observe stimuli.
Implicit memory rather than explicit.

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2
Q

What are behaviours that aren’t dependent on learning?

A
  • reflexes
  • fixed action patterns
  • maturation
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3
Q

Define and give an example of reflexes.

A

Reflex actions are automatic, involuntary responses that don’t require prior experience. Adaptive for survival and they’re inbuilt mechanisms. Examples are:

  • blinking; when an object comes near our eyes we blink or shut our eyes to protect them.
  • palmar grasp: when you place your finger in a baby’s Palm, they spontaneously grasp it.
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4
Q

Define fixed action patterns and give an example.

A

Fixed action patterns are inbuilt complex sequences of behaviours carried out by all members of species (or gender) in response to environmental stimuli. Examples are:

  • spider spinning a web
  • salmon swimming upstream to spawn in area of own birth.
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5
Q

Define maturation and give an example.

A

Maturation refers to behaviours that require the development of the body and the structures of the nervous system. Examples are:

  • walking: most babies begin walking around 10-14 months.
  • birds are unable to fly until wings and feathers have reached the appropriate level of maturity.
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6
Q

Explain and give examples of excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory neurotransmitters.

A

Excitatory: excited, increases activity in nervous system e.g. Glutamate and dopamine.
Inhibitory: inhibits, slows activity in nervous system e.g. Serotonin

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7
Q

Define and give examples of brain plasticity.

A

The capacity of the brain to change and adapt due to learning (stimulation from the environment). Examples are:

  • the more you text with thumbs the bigger the primary motor cortex will become.
  • following an accident, und amazed regions of the brain may take over functions of damaged regions.
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8
Q

List and explain the two types of brain plasticity.

A

Developmental: refers to changes in brain structure which are genetically programmed (and require experience) during growth and development (embryo to adolescence). Has 5 key stages.
Adaptive: throughout entire lifespan.

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9
Q

List and explain the 5 key stages of developmental plasticity.

A

Proliferation: creation of new neurons (cell division) before birth.
Migration: new cells move into position within nervous system.
Circuit formation/synaptogenesis: creation of new synapses (connections between neurons) to form a circuit/pathway.
Pruning: eliminating unwanted synaptic pathways that aren’t being used “use it or lose it”
Myelination: thickening of myelin sheath to speed up transmission of information.

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10
Q

Explain adaptive plasticity.

A

Brains ability to compensate for lost functionality due to brain damage as well as in response to interaction with environment by reorganising neural structure.

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11
Q

What neuronal changes occur in adaptive plasticity?

A
  • rerouting
  • reorganisation
  • circuit formation/synaptogenesis
  • bushier dendrites
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12
Q

Explain a sensitive period of development.

A

A period of time in development where the brain is primed to receive stimuli and learning is most efficient. Starts and ends gradually and learning can still occur afterwards but less efficiently (needs more time and effort).

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13
Q

Give an example of a sensitive period of development.

A

Learning a second language is easier before the age of 7

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14
Q

Explain a critical period of development.

A

A specific period of time in development where the brain must receive stimuli for learning to take place. There are clearer and more abrupt start and end points and learning isn’t likely to occur afterwards. There are fewer critical periods in humans.

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15
Q

Give an example of a critical period of development.

A

Kittens who have 1 eye closed for first months of light will never gain vision.

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16
Q

List the three main techniques of learning.

A

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning

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17
Q

Explain classical conditioning

A

Learning through the association of 2 stimuli (one that reflexively leads to a response and one that’s originally neutral). Key research of classical conditioning includes Pavlov’s dogs and Little Albert. It’s uses include graduated exposure, flooding and aversion therapy.s

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18
Q

Explain operant conditioning

A

Learning through consequences. Behaviour with a positive consequence likely to be repeated and behaviour with a negative consequence is likely to be weakened. Key research of operant conditioning includes Thorndike and cats in puzzle box (trial and error learning) and Skinner and pigeons. It’s uses include shaping and token economies (e.g. Star charts for money and coffee club cards)

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19
Q

Explain observational learning.

A

Learning through watching other people’s behaviour and its consequences. Key research of observational learning includes Bandura and Bobo doll.

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20
Q

Define stimulus, response, conditioned, unconditioned and neutral.

A 
Stimulus: thing that leads to response
Response: reaction to stimulus
Conditioned: learnt
Unconditioned: not learnt (reflexive/naturally occurring)
Neutral:  no response
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21
Q

What key components of classical conditioning need to be remembered?

A

Un = reflexive
The 2 stimuli (CS+UCS) are paired/associated
The 2 responses (CR+UCR) will be same/similar but due to different stimulus.
Always state what CR+UCR are due to
Before learning has occurred CS is neutral

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22
Q

In terms of the ‘That was easy’ video, list the NS, UCS, UCR, CS and CR.

A

NS: ‘that was easy’ sound
UCS: getting shot with nerd gun
UCR: flinching due to being shot with nerd gun
CS: ‘that was easy’ sound
CR: flinching due to ‘that was easy’ sound
NS becomes conditioned stimulus after learning, UCS during learning.

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23
Q

The UCR and CR are…?

A

UCR: reflex response to UCS
CR: learnt response to CS
Both are same/similar response but to different stimuli.

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24
Q

Explain the study carried out by Watson and Rayner in 1920’s using Little Albert.

A 
NS: animal
UCS: loud noise
UCR: being fearful due to loud noise
CS: animal
CR: being fearful due to animal
Learning took place when Albert showed fear response to animal (CS) without presence of loud noise (UCS) being presented. Stimulus generalisation also occurred as stimuli similar to CS (dog, rabbit) also lead to CR.
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25
Q

What ethical considerations were breached?

A

Voluntary participation: may have been underlying pressure for mother to agree with participation (job security). Overcome by using participants outside of institute or having written agreement.
Informed consent: mother unlikely to have been informed of topic, risks and rights. Overcome by having written information regarding experiment.
Withdrawal rights: Little Albert became distressed and tried to crawl away and leave. Overcome by having parent and withdrawing.
Confidentiality: images released, overcome by getting consent first.
No harm principle: potential phobia, overcome by extinguishing CR or not doing experiment at all.

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26
Q

Define acquisition.

A

The process of learning during which the organism learns to associate the CS and the UCS (e.g. Bell and food). CS must be presented before the UCS, within a short time frame (0.5 seconds). Learning has taken place when CS alone leads to CR (e.g. Bell now leads to salivation at bell - even though UCS of food isn’t produced)

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27
Q

Define extinction.

A

Gradual decrease in CR that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without UCS (e.g. Bell is continually rang without food being presented). Extinction has occurred when the CS no longer leads to CR (e,g. Bell no longer leads to salivation due to bell). Rate of extinction will vary depend on frequency and strength of association and type of learnt response. Intense fears are difficult to extinguish.

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28
Q

Define spontaneous recovery.

A

Following extinction and a rest period, the CS is presented and once again leads to CR. (E,g. After extinction and then a rest period, a bell is presented and dog once again salivates to bell). Often short lived and CR tends to be weaker than it was originally. Likely that extinction will quickly occur.

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29
Q

Define stimulus generalisation.

A

Stimulus similar to CS produce CR (or similar response) e.g. Dog salivates to chime as well as bell. The greater the similarity between stimuli the greater the possibility generalisation will occur.

30
Q

Define stimulus discrimination.

A

Only the CS from original learning leads to CR e.g. Dog only salivates to bell and not similar noises.

31
Q

Define conditioned reflexes.

A

Automatic and involuntary responses that have been learnt through association of 2 stimuli. They’re anticipatory behaviour that involve little conscious thought. E,g. A person automatically brakes when the car in front puts its brake lights on, a person automatically reaches for phone when it beeps with a new message.

32
Q

Define graduated exposure.

A

Exposing client to gradually increasing levels of fear-provoking CS (without UCS being present) until it doesn’t produce the CR. Used when there’s an extremely strong CR that doesn’t respond to normal extinction techniques e.g. Cases of extreme fear (specific phobias).

33
Q

Explain the steps taken in graduated exposure.

A
  • client is first taught a relaxation or breathing technique.
  • the fear is broken into a hierarchy from least to most fear producing stimuli.
  • client is exposed to least fear producing stimuli (CS) until fear response (CR) is extinguished,
  • process is repeated with an increase in the level of fear producing stimuli, until actual stimuli doesn’t lead to fear response.
  • can involve imagining situations, virtual reality technology and real life exposure.
34
Q

Define flooding.

A

Exposing client directly to fear provoking CS (without UCS being present) until CR is extinguished. E.g. To help a person who has been bitten by a dog, put it in a room with a dog (CS), without being bitten (UCS) and keep them there until fear response (CR) subsides. If unsuccessful, may lead to fear (CR) being worsened. Can also lead to forming another CS (e.g. Fear of therapist due to association with dog) and links to sympathetic nervous system - based on the principle that heightened fear response will subside after period of time.

35
Q

Define aversion therapy.

A

Used to overcome unwanted behaviour (CS) by linking it with an unpleasant stimulus that reflexively produces response (UCS). E.g. Unwanted behaviour of biting nails (CS) is linked with bitter nail polish (UCS) that naturally leads to foul taste. Problems with aversion therapy include: failure to generalise outside of learning setting (knowing that drinking outside of clinic will not involve Antabuse and therefore don’t feel nauseous). Doesn’t deal with the underlying issues leading to the unwanted behaviour - many long term studies that aversion therapy isn’t successful in changing behaviour.

36
Q

How did Thorndike carry out his experiment?

A

Placed cat in a box with a plate of food outside the box and repeatedly timed how long the cat took to pull the string to open the box.

37
Q

Why did Thorndike say the cats weren’t learning through insight (a real understanding of how to escape?)

A

Because the results don’t show the cat becoming quicker at escaping, shows random fluctuations of longer time.

38
Q

Explain trial and error learning.

A

Trial and error learning involves attempting different responses. Responses which are ineffective aren’t repeated. Effective responses are.

39
Q

What is the law of effect?

A

States that behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences; if behaviour has a positive consequence then it’s likely to be strengthened, however if behaviour has negative consequence then it’s likely to be weakened.

40
Q

What did Thorndike mean by using the term instrumental learning?

A

As the learner is instrumental (the active key) in the learning process.

41
Q

Explain the 3-phase model of operant conditioning.

A
  1. Antecedent/discriminative stimulus: setting/environment/stimulus the learner has to operate/respond to e.g. Coloured lights (red and green) in Skinner box.
  2. Behaviour: learners action/response to antecedent stimulus e.g. Pigeon pecks red light.
  3. Consequence: the reinforcement/punishment that follows behaviour. Reinforcement will strengthen behaviour and punishment will weaken behaviour. E.g. Pigeon receives food pellet, this strengthens likelihood pigeon will peck red light when presented with it again.
    Known as DBC or ABC of learning
42
Q

Explain the two types of reinforcement.

A

Both strengthen a desired behaviour.
Positive: adding pleasant consequence to increase desired behaviour. E.g. Employee of the month gets a reserved parking space.
Negative: taking away an unpleasant consequence to increase desired behaviour. E.g. A woman offers a child candy to keep quiet (mothers perspective).

43
Q

Explain the two types of punishment (operant conditioning).

A

Both weaken undesired behaviour.
Punishment: add an unpleasant consequence to decrease undesired behaviour e.g. A student is told to sit in the corner like a rock for misbehaving.
Response cost: take away pleasant consequence to decrease undesired behaviour. E.g. A prisoner loses TV privileges for a rule violation.

44
Q

Explain schedules of reinforcement.

A

Schedule of reinforcement refers to the frequency and manner in which a reinforcer (or punisher) is provided. Different schedules have different impacts on rate of learning and extinction.

45
Q

Describe continuous reinforcement.

A

Every correct behaviour is reinforced. Best in acquisition/learning stage. However, once continuous rein stops extinction can quickly occur.

46
Q

Describe 4 partial schedules.

A

Fixed ratio: reinforcement given after a set number of correct responses. E.g. Every 5 correct responses pigeon gets food.
Fixed interval: reinforcement given after set amount of time (in which SOME correct responses are made). E.g. Every 5 minutes (in which some correct responses are made) pigeon gets food.
Variable ratio: reinforcement given after changing number of correct responses (but with overall average). E.g. Reinforcement given for 2 correct responses in 10, but at varying responses. (2+7 or 3+6 or 1+9).
Variable interval: reinforcement given after changing amount of time (with overall average). E.g. Reinforcement given twice every 10 minutes, but at varying times.

47
Q

Explain Skinner’s operant conditioning

A

Based his theory on Thorndike’s law of effect. Used the term operant to highlight that the learner operates (makes voluntary actions) on the environment that lead to consequences.

48
Q

Explain shaping.

A

Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that gets closer and closer and eventually leads to a desired or target behaviour. Also known as successive approximations.

49
Q

Provide an example of shaping in everyday life and identify the discriminative stimulus, the behaviour and the consequence.

A

Learning to play piano; play it and then make a mistake. Play it again except for a little longer and make a mistake. Play again and for even longer before making a mistake.
Discriminative stimulus: piano
Behaviour: attempting the piece to be learnt.
Consequence: feeling good (positive reinforcement)

50
Q

What is a token economy?

A

A form of behaviour modification in which tokens are earned for performing target behaviour and these tokens can be exchanged later for some reinforcer (reward) that’s valued by the learner.

51
Q

In reference to partial schedules of reinforcement, in what order do they become extinct the quickest?

A

Fixed ratio quickest to extinct, following by fixed interval, followed by variable ratio and variable interval.

52
Q

What are 2 important notes to remember for both reinforcement and punishment? (4 notes in total)

A

Reinforcement: don’t use reward interchangeably with reinforcer. Both are a pleasant outcome for learner (e.g. Lolls) but a reward doesn’t necessarily increase/strengthen future behaviour (whereas a reinforcer does)
Punishment:
problems with punishment - doesn’t promote/increase appropriate behaviour and can lead to anger/resentment/helplessness.
to be effective - linked to behaviour, soon as possible after behaviour; brief and fair.

53
Q

List 3 ways to make punishment and reinforcement effective.

A

Order of presentation: behaviour and then consequences (rein/pun) e.g. Clean room and then lolly (not the other way around)
Timing: behaviour and then consequences immediately after (where possible)
Appropriateness: reinforcer must be pleasing and actually strengthen behaviour. Punishment must be unpleasant and actually decrease behaviour.

54
Q

Define acquisition.

A

Establishing a behaviour through consequences e.g. Pecking red light leads to food.

55
Q

Define stimulus generalisation (operant conditioning).

A

Environment similar to the discriminative stimulus also leads to behaviour e.g. Orange light also leads to pecking.

56
Q

Define stimulus discrimination (operant conditioning)

A

Only the discriminative stimulus from original learning leads to behaviour e.g. Only red light leads to pecking

57
Q

Define extinction (operant)

A

Gradual decrease in strength/rate of learnt response following removal of consequences e.g. Stop pecking red light after food pellets stop being given.

58
Q

Define spontaneous recovery (operant)

A

After extinction and rest period the discriminative stimulus once again leads to behaviour (even with absence of consequence) e.g. After extinction and rest period bird once again pecks red light.

59
Q

Comparing classical conditioning and operant conditioning, what’s the role of the learner?

A

Classical: passive - the reflexive behaviour occurs without any deliberate action from the learner.
Operant: active - the behaviour must be initiated by the learner.

60
Q

Comparing classical and operant conditioning, what’s the nature of response?

A

Classical: reflexive - the learner has no control over the behaviour.
Operant: voluntary - discriminative stimulus is the environment that provokes the behaviour (occurs before the behaviour/response).

61
Q

Comparing classical and operant, what’s the timing of stimulus and response?

A

Classical; stimulus (UCS/CS) followed by response (UCR/CR) - reflexive behaviour in response to stimuli
Operant: DS (environment) leads to response and is followed by a consequence. The consequence occurs after the response to strengthen/weaken behaviour

62
Q

Comparing classical and operant, explain the acquisition stage.

A

Classical: repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS.
Operant: the establishment of a behaviour through consequence.

63
Q

Provide an overview of the activity conducted in class (observational)

A

Learners chosen via convenience sampling, sample 15 VCE students. Learners had motivation as pleasurable consequence was a certificate and chocolate. Learners had to pay attention to teacher regarding how to make origami frog, then had to use mental representation to reproduce behaviour. Whoever could “jump” their frog the farthest would win certificate.

64
Q

Relate class activity to 5 stages of observational learning.

A

Attention: learners had to pay attention to teacher’s behaviour (making origami)
Retention; create mental representation of behaviour
Reproduction; able to use mental representation to reproduce behaviour.
Motivation: want to imitate behaviour due to pleasurable consequence of doing so
Reinforcement: certificate and chocolate acted as positive reinforcement to imitate behaviour.
(ARRMR)

65
Q

Provide an overview of research conducted in class on classical conditioning.

A

Tested participants on classical conditioning via convenience sampling; sample was 10 VCE students. The UCS in the experiment being a water gun to spray participants each time reader would provide neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus (the word hat)

66
Q

Write a hypothesis for research conducted in class on classical conditioning.

A

It was hypothesised that VCE students would eventually flinch upon hearing the word hat on its own (CS) after being sprayed with a water gun (UCS) each time they heard it. This was done over repeated associations.

67
Q

Using the language of classical conditioning explain how you knew when learning had occurred?

A

Learning took place when the participant showed the conditioned response (flinching) to the conditioned stimulus (hat) without presence of UCS (squirting with water gun).

68
Q

What occurred in the acquisition stage of learning?

A

The neutral stimulus (hat) was repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus (water gun). The UCS provided quickly after the neutral stimulus.

69
Q

If learning didn’t take place in classical conditioning experiment, explain why this may be so.

A

Placebo effect
Acquisition stage; wasn’t repeated for long enough.
Wasn’t a reflexive response

70
Q

Identify 3 phase model of components of operant conditioning activity in class.

A

A: classroom
B: taking steps closer to target behaviour; sitting in chair
C: gets chocolate for each step

71
Q

What factors may have influenced the observational learning?

A

Motivation: learners might not have wanted to imitate the behaviour.
Reinforcement: may not have been appropriate for some learners - not interested in certificate and chocolate.

Psychology (10 decks)

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