Unit 3/Part 5: Memory

Question 1

Explain the Atkinson Shiffrin multi-store model.

Answer 1

This model propose 3 types of memory; sensory, short-term and long term).

Question 2

What is encoding?

Answer 2

Putting information into correct format for brain to process (e.g electrochemical energy)

Question 3

Define memory.

Answer 3

An active information-processing system that encodes, stores and retrieves information.

Question 4

What’s the difference between iconic and echoic memory?

Answer 4

Iconic memory is based on visual sensory information, whereas echoic is based on auditory sensory information. Iconic can last for up to 0.3 seconds and tends to fade rapidly, whereas echoic can last for up to 3-4 seconds and doesn’t fade as fast.

Question 5

What is the capacity of iconic and echoic memory?

Answer 5

Both have unlimited capacity.

Question 6

Explain why iconic has a shorter duration than echoic memory.

Answer 6

Because for iconic we constantly have to be visually aware of what’s happening in front of us, whereas auditory memory is longer so we can retrieve it, pay attention to it and respond.

Question 7

Outline the direction and capacity of short term memory.

Answer 7

12-30 seconds and 7+-2 items.

Question 8

How does STM differ from sensory memory?

Answer 8

It differs in that the direction is slightly longer, however the capacity isn’t unlimited unlike sensory memory.

Question 9

What function does STM play in our ability to remember things?

Answer 9

We retrieve information from our LTM to sit in STM so we can evaluate and understand information that we’re working on at a given moment.

Question 10

What is chunking?

Answer 10

The grouping together of individual items to form a single unit or ‘chunk’ to increase STM capacity.

Question 11

What is an example of chunking?

Answer 11

A mobile phone number is 10 individual digits outside STM capacity. 0-4-1-7-6-3-9-7-8-4. To overcome this individual digits are grouped to form 3 units that’s within STM capacity 0417-639-784.

Question 12

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 12

Repeating information over and over again (without adding detail) to increase duration of STM e.g. Hold it for longer than 30 seconds.

Question 13

What is an example of maintenance rehearsal and how is it useful?

Answer 13

Rote learning, which is repeating times tables over and over again. It’s useful at increasing duration of STM and may lead to info being eventually transferred to LTM.

Question 14

What’s the limitation of maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 14

Capacity of STM is being filled (can’t think of anything else while repeating) and info in LTM is unlikely to be deeply encoded or have cues for retrieval.

Question 15

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 15

Remembering new information by adding additional detail or linking with other information. It’s superior to maintenance in that information is more deeply and meaningfully encoded and cues and links are available for retrieval.

Question 16

What is the duration and capacity of LTM?

Answer 16

According to the A-S model LTM has a potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

Question 17

What system is info in LTM believed to be organised in?

Answer 17

A semantic network; a hierarchy of nodes connected by links.

Question 18

What are the two main types of LTM?

Answer 18

Procedural memory and declarative memory.

Question 19

Define procedural memory.

Answer 19

Refers to knowledge of skills, habits, or actions (‘how to’ knowledge)

Question 20

Define declarative memory.

Answer 20

Refers to memory for facts and events. This is further divided into episodic and semantic memory.

Question 21

Define episodic memory.

Answer 21

Refers to memories of particular events and is often autobiographical, such as birthdays, your first day of school or your first romantic kiss.

Question 22

Define semantic memory.

Answer 22

Refers to memory for facts, worldly knowledge or general knowledge.

Question 23

What is the semantic network theory?

Answer 23

A theory that explains how info is organised and retrieved in LTM. It suggests info is stored via meaning and interconnected. There are 3 main features of a semantic network:

• The info is stored via nodes.
• The nodes are connected via links (the shorter the link the more meaningful the connection and quicker the retrieval)
• nodes are organised in a hierarchy

Question 24

Explain the spreading activation theory.

Answer 24

Explains how info is retrieved from the semantic network. It suggests a question will activate a node, usually high in the hierarchy. In turn, via links, more and more nodes will be activated like wildfire. This process will start slowly and become quicker over time.

Question 25

Explain the serial position effect.

Answer 25

Supports STM and LTM of the A-S model. The consistent finding that a words position in a list (beginning, middle and end) effects the likelihood of recall. Made up of 3 components:

• primacy effect: superior recall of words at beginning of list, as they’re rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
• recency effect: superior recall of words at end of list (immediate recall) as they’re still in STM.
• asymptote: inferior recall of words in middle of list (not rehearsed for LTM and pushed out of STM)

Question 26

Name and explain the four components of Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory.

Answer 26

Central executive (think of CEO; the boss making decisions): controls attention, what we focus on and ignore, shifts attention between tasks, directs resources to loop and sketch pad, directs activity of episodic buffer.
Phonological loop (AKA articulatory rehearsal loop): maintains and rehearses auditory info, e.g. Repeating sounds, instructions over and over in your mind.
Visuo-spatial sketch pad: creates a mental map/image of visual/spatial info. E.g. Picturing what your room looks like.
Episodic buffer: multidimensional workspace that integrates info from the loop, sketch pad and LTM. Forms the episode (whole experience) to create a new episodic LTM. Directed by central executive.

Question 27

What’s a limitation of the primacy effect and when does it occur?

Answer 27

If list lasts longer than approximately 30 seconds (duration of STM) then it is likely that items from the start of the list will be forgotten unless they have been stored in LTM. It will still occur if there is a delay of more than 12-30 seconds between learning and reporting items.

Question 28

What is a limitation of the recency effect and when does it occur?

Answer 28

A limitation is that it won’t occur where there is a delay of more than 12-30 seconds between learning and reporting the items (delayed free recall). It will still occur even if the list of items is increased.

Question 29

What’s a limitation of asymptote?

Answer 29

As STM reaches capacity, items are displaced before they can be adequately rehearsed and stored in LTM.

Question 30

Who established the levels of processing theory?

Answer 30

Craik and Lockhart in 1972

Question 31

Explain the three levels at which we encode material according to the levels of processing theory.

Answer 31

1. Structural; focusing on the structure and physical properties e.g. POtato, brIck and BOOK and being asked to remember whether the word contained upper case letters. This type of processing is shallow and only 20% of words are recalled after structural coding. Form of maintenance rehearsal.
2. Phonemic; words are learnt by their sounds e.g. bull, style, amazing and you’re asked to think of a rhyme for the word. This type of processing is moderate and approximately 50% of words were recalled after phonemic encoding. Form of elaborative rehearsal.
3. Semantic; words are encoded by their meaning, which allows them to be placed directly in our semantic networks, e.g. Put words into a sentence. This type of processing is deep and 80% or more words were retrieved after semantic encoding. Form of elaborative rehearsal

Question 32

What structural changes (physical structure of the brain) occur when forming a new memory?

Answer 32

1. Bushier dendrites - grew more branches called dendritic spines, which strengthens connection between neurons and enables more efficient communication.
2. Synaptogenesis - new synapses formed resulting in new neural pathway or circuit.

Question 33

What functional changes (way the brain works) occur when forming a new memory?

Answer 33

Long term potentiation - the strengthening of existing synapses; when 2 neurons are repeatedly activated there is a strengthening of signal transmission. Meaning the pre synaptic neuron will send out more neurotransmitters and the post synaptic neuron will be more sensitive to them.

Question 34

What areas of the brain are involved in memory?

Answer 34

Mainly the middle of the temporal lobe, which includes the hippocampus and amygdala and the frontal lobes.

Question 35

Explain the hippocampus in terms of memory.

Answer 35

Found in lower region of temporal lobe, has a key role in declarative memories (explicit memories). It:

• processes and consolidates new declarative memories
• transfer them to other parts of brain for permanent LTM storage (the hippocampus does not store declarative LTM)
• assists in retrieval of declarative LTM

Question 36

Explain effects of damage to the hippocampus.

Answer 36

• difficulty forming new declarative memories (anterograde amnesia)
• can still form new procedural memories, however individual won’t recall learning it.

Question 37

Explain the amygdala in terms of memory.

Answer 37

Found in lower region of temporal lobe, responsible for emotional aspects of memory e.g. Fear, anger, recognising facial expressions. If an event involves an emotional response the amygdala will activate the hippocampus, resulting in deeper encoding of the event. Also forms new memories with strong emotional content (classical conditioning)

Question 38

Explain effects of damage to the amygdala.

Answer 38

• not reacting the fearful stimuli (lack of emotional memory)
• post traumatic stress and depression have been linked to abnormal activity in the amygdala.

Question 39

Explain the frontal lobes in terms of memory.

Answer 39

Responsible for working memory and retrieves LTM info from hippocampus.

Question 40

What does the consolidation theory propose?

Answer 40

That when a new memory is formed there are physical (biological,chemical) changes in neurons that occur in the brain. It is thought that any memory that’s permanently stored (LTM) will involve the process of consolidation, entailing three components.

Question 41

Explain explicit and implicit memory.

Answer 41

Explicit memory refers to memories that can be expressed in words. It can be used interchangeably with declarative LTM. Includes personal experiences (episodic LTM) and knowledge and facts (semantic LTM). The hippocampus encodes explicit.
Implicit memory refers to memories of skills, emotions and classically conditioned responds (e.g fears, and taste aversion). Procedural LTM is one type of implicit memory (so words have similar meaning, but NOT the same). The amygdaloid plays a key role in encoding implicit memories.

Question 42

Explain retention.

Answer 42

Refers to the different methods used to test how much info has been stored (retained) in memory - particularly LTM. Each method varies in sensitivity - its effectiveness for retrieving info stored in memory.

Question 43

What are the 5 types of retention methods?

Answer 43

Recall - free, serial and cued. Recognition and relearning

Question 44

Explain the 3 types of recall.

Answer 44

Free recall: no cues, in any order, example name the planets
Serial recall: no cues, in specific order example name the planets in order from the sun.
Cued recall: some cues and any order example name planets beginning with M, V and E.

Question 45

Explain recognition.

Answer 45

Selecting correct info from list of alternative example multiple choice questions - identify planets from list of 20 names.

Question 46

Explain relearning.

Answer 46

Going back over previously learnt info and calculating time/trials saved. Example: calculating time taken to learn planets initially, compared to 2 years later.

Question 47

What are 2 changes in brain functioning that may affect the memory of older people?

Answer 47

• bundles of axons in the brain decline; disrupts communication between different regions of the brain.
• loss of myelin sheath; slower neuron conduct.
• frontal lobe is less efficient (poorer working memory).

Question 48

List each factor that contributes to age-related memory decline.

Answer 48

Biological changes such as frontal lobe becoming less efficient, wearing down of neurons as well as loss of motivation and confidence.

Question 49

In terms of LTM and memory loss:

Answer 49

• episodic (personal, autobiographical) memories are typically lost first.
• followed by semantic (knowledge and facts)
• least likely to be lost are procedural (how-to actions and skills)

Question 50

In terms of working memory and loss:

Answer 50

• general slowing of working memory (may take longer to complete tasks)
• poorer ability on complex tasks or those requiring divided attention.

Question 51

What is meant by organic causes of forgetting?

Answer 51

An organic form of forgetting is due to brain injury, trauma or disease e.g. Amnesia, dementia.

Question 52

What are some of the causes of brain damage?

Answer 52

Stroke, accidents, drug use, hit to head.

Question 53

Describe the behaviour of a person with anterograde amnesia.

Answer 53

• inability to encode and store new memories; particularly new long-term declarative memories.
• still able to form short-term, procedural and implicit memories.

Question 54

Why is life so difficult for a person with anterograde amnesia?

Answer 54

Because they are unable to form new long-term memories; they can’t expand their general knowledge, or be able to store any important episodes of their life (since brain injury or trauma) in long-term memory.

Question 55

How extensive is the memory loss in retrograde amnesia?

Answer 55

Usually affects memories in the period prior to injury, but can range to years beforehand of memory loss. Older memories tend to be less affected.

Question 56

What kind of recovery typically occurs with retrograde amnesia?

Answer 56

Older memories generally return first, however memory of events just prior to injury aren’t as likely to be recovered.

Question 57

What explanation do psychologists give for the total loss of memory of events immediately preceding the injury in retrograde amnesia?

Answer 57

That the consolidation of these memories was most likely disrupted, hence why they aren’t as likely to be remembered.

Question 58

Define the term dementia.

Answer 58

A disorder affecting higher mental functions. It can have various forms and may be caused by a range of factors e.g. Reduced blood supply to the brain or toxins such as alcohol. A common dementia is Alzheimer’s disease.

Question 59

What type of amnesia does alzheimers involve?

Answer 59

Both anterograde and retrograde amnesia e.g. Repeating stories and questions or forgetting events from the day before.

Question 60

Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles typify Alzheimer’s disease. What are these changes in the brain?

Answer 60

Amyloid plaques are proteins that form among the axon terminals and interfere with the communication between neurons. Neurofibrillary tangles are an abnormal build up of protein inside the neurons, associated with the death of brain cells.

Question 61

Which neurotransmitter is typically at low levels in Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 61

Acetylcholine.

Question 62

What is the difference between forgetting and organic forms of forgetting such as amnesia?

Answer 62

Forgetting doesn’t occur due to brain damage, unlike organic forms of forgetting.

Question 63

How did Ebbinghaus carry out research into forgetting?

Answer 63

He tested himself by learning lists of nonsense syllables then waited for certain time periods to recall them. Results showed that forgetting occurred rapidly in the first 20 minutes, at a moderate rate until one hour had passed and then very gradually for the next 30 days.

Question 64

Describe the forgetting curve

Answer 64

The forgetting curve shows that the percentage of words forgotten decreases over time. There is rapid forgetting within the first hour, moderate for 1 day and more gradual and slow past that.

Question 65

What type of learning can lead to retaining more info for longer and with greater accuracy?

Answer 65

Maintenance rehearsal and regular revision.

Question 66

What is pseudo forgetting?

Answer 66

When memory is thought to be forgotten but was never encoded and stored in the first place. If there has been a disruption to the consolidation process then this may also result in pseudo forgetting.

Question 67

What does the retrieval failure theory propose?

Answer 67

Forgetting is an inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them.

Question 68

Provide an example of retrieval failure from your own life.

Answer 68

Forgetting to hang up my washing because I had no cue, such as looking at the washing machine or setting up a cue to remember like the clothes horse.

Question 69

Explain what is meant by the tip of the tongue phenomenon.

Answer 69

Knowing that your memory does have the name, item or material you’re trying to remember but you just can’t retrieve it at that moment.

Question 70

What does TOT phenomenon suggest about memory storage?

Answer 70

That memories are stored in a complex fashion, at a variety of locations in the brain.

Question 71

How does TOT support the retrieval failure theory?

Answer 71

The info was available but not accessible due to inadequate retrieval cues.

Question 72

What does the interference theory propose?

Answer 72

Refers to difficulties in retrieving info from memory, caused by other material learnt either previously (proactive or retroactive interference) and proposes that one set of info in the memory competes with another set of info.

Question 73

Use your own example to support the interference theory.

Answer 73

I find learning the correct pronunciation of the word I have incorrectly pronounced for years difficulty to do.

Question 74

Define proactive interference and give an example.

Answer 74

When previously learnt materials inhibits our ability to retrieve new material. For example, studying French a few years ago could inhibit ability to learn Japanese words.

Question 75

Define retroactive interference and give example

Answer 75

When newly learnt material inhibits our ability to retrieve previously learnt info. For example, in an Italian verb test your more recent knowledge of Spanish verbs might interfere with your ability to retrieve the correct Italian verbs for the test.

Question 76

How does similarity of material affect interference?

Answer 76

The original info forgotten increases as level of similarity between the original info and interval info increases.

Question 77

How is retroactive interference tested? How is proactive interference tested?

Answer 77

Retroactive: if E group (learnt list of words, learnt another list, tested for recall for first list) recall fewer list A words than control group (learnt list A then tested for recall) then retroactive interference has occurred.
Proactive: if experimental group recalls fewer second list words than the control group then proactive interference has occurred.

Question 78

What does the motivated theory propose?

Answer 78

That people have reasons to forget memories stored in LTM and can result from suppression or repression.

Question 79

What is the difference between repression and suppression?

Answer 79

Suppression is conscious refusal to access memories that are available (e.g ignoring the memory of an unpleasant activity such as a visit to the dentist). Repression on the other hand is where painful or distressing memories are unconsciously pushed to an inaccessible part of the mind and the person is unaware that these memories exist.

Question 80

How are repressed memories retrieved?

Answer 80

By being triggered by an event or experience in the present that brings the repressed memory back into awareness, for example watching a video, hypnosis or hearing particular music.

Question 81

Outline 2 criticism of repression.

Answer 81

• lack of experimental research to support theory; although ethical issues would prevent it.
• memories of abuse could be false as they may have been implanted in patients memories by ideas or misinfo present to a person.

Question 82

What does the decay theory propose? You must refer to memory trace in your answer.

Answer 82

Theory that suggests memory traces in the brain will fade over time through lack of use and eventually become unavailable. Also proposes that forgetting is a physiological process and is based on the idea that when a memory is laid down there is a physical or chemical trace of the experience in the brain.

Question 83

Why doesn’t decay theory explain all aspects of forgetting?

Answer 83

Because researches haven’t successfully shown that decay causes forgetting of something that was stored in LTM.

Question 84

Define mnemonics.

Answer 84

Memory tool used to increase retrieval of info in memory, form of elaborative rehearsal therefore is strong and deep encoding.

Question 85

Give examples and describe mnemonic devices.

Answer 85

Acronym: word or pronounceable syllable made up of the first letters of the items we’re trying to remember or the words in the phrase. Example FPOT
Acrostic: phrases, rhymes or poems in which the first letter of each word serves as a cue to help you retrieve a word or idea that begins with the same letter. Example Never Eat Soggy Weetbix
Narrative chaining: incorporating info into a story, especially effective if the story is bizarre. Works due to adding detail to the info, providing more links for retrieval. Example Maria Milk and Bernie Bread were in love.

Question 86

Outline two reasons why eyewitness testimony may fail.

Answer 86

• reconstructive nature of memories; witnesses will build their own expectations of the perpetrator, built by similar experiences from the past, from stories or even their own feelings at the time.
• misleading questions and the misinformation effect; misinfo can be planted in a witness testimony, taking on greater significance until they begin to believe the implanted info is a genuine memory.

Question 87

What is a misleading question?

Answer 87

Containing words that can influence a witnesses response e.g. Loftus and Palmer experiment revealed witnesses of a crash were more likely to report higher percentages of seeing broken glass if words in the question such as smashed into were used compared to hit.

Question 88

What does memory reconstruction mean?

Answer 88

Forming a new memory that overrides the true memory based on own expectations and misleading info given to witness.

Question 89

Based on research conducted how can a misleading question affect memory?

Answer 89

It can imply other info that can hold significance over actual memories.

Question 90

What does the work of Elizabeth Loftus propose?

Answer 90

That an original memory is reconstructed (modified/altered) over time. May occur because of misleading questions, conversations, reading, thinking about memory. Additional info is en added to original to create altered new version.

Question 91

What is a leading question?

Answer 91

One that assumes or prompts the answer within the question