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Gr. 12 ap bio > Unit 4 - Homeostasis > Flashcards

Unit 4 - Homeostasis Flashcards

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1
Q

homeostasis

A

constant physiological adjustments of the body in response to external environment changes.

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2
Q

negative feedback system

A

positive signal, physiological change, neg signal

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3
Q

positive feedback (feed-forward) system

A

ex. contractions

positive signal, physiological change, positive signal

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4
Q

endocrine system

A

delivery of chemicals within the body; created by one organ to be delivered to another (usu far away)

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5
Q

hormones

A

affecting chemicals delivered around the body; to increase / decrease processes

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6
Q

glands

A

they secrete

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7
Q

endocrine glands

A

organs producing molecules delivered by bloodstream (inside)

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8
Q

exocrine glands

A

organs producing molecules delivered by ducts (cellular tubes) (outside)

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9
Q

hormone discovery

A 
Mering & Minkowski
removed pancreas from dogs
- rapid weight loss
- tired
- glucose in urine
(pancreas related to regulating body sugars)
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10
Q

hormone roles

A

hormone are specific to target cells (protein receptors)

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11
Q

two types of hormoens

A
  1. steroid hormones

2. protein hormones

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12
Q

steroid hormones

A
  • made from cholesterol
  • non-polar (need carrier)
  • 3 hexagons and 1 pentagon
    1. diffuse from cell of origin through membranes
    2. diffuse into target cell
    3. often moves into nucleus to affect transcription
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13
Q

LDL
HDL
info abt cholesterol

A

low density lipoproteins
high density lipoproteins

cholesterol is hydrophobic (packaged in protein “capsule”)

cholesterol is lower density than protein

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14
Q

steroid hormones can affect ____ and how

A

transcription

they find sequence in promoter region to bind to, 2 hormones bring 2 receptors together, recruit transcription factors and affect transcription

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15
Q

protein hormones

A
  • short peptide sequences
  • polar
    1. transported from cell of origin (secretory vacuoles)
    2. attach to surface receptors of target cells
    3. activates enzymes to make other internal signals
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16
Q

pituitary gland

A

overlooks operation of all other glands

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17
Q

2 lobes in pituitary gland

close to hypothalamus

A
  1. anterior lobe - produces own hormones; released upon hypothalamus signal (front)
  2. posterior lobe - stores and releases hormones produced in hypothalamus; released upon signal (back)
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18
Q

thermoregulation

A

maintenance of body temp within an acceptable range

ectotherms - cold-blooded

endotherms - warm-blooded

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19
Q

what happens when you’re cold

A
  • blood vessels contract in skin
  • muscles contract (goosebumps, shivering)
  • brown adipose (fat) tissue metabolism (high [mitochondria] for heat, newborns have so don’t shiver)
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20
Q

what regulates our temp

A

hypothalamus

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21
Q

heat stress flow chart

A

high body temp ->
hypothalamus (+) ->
nerve pathway (+) ->

  1. blood vessels dilate; increased blood flow; heat leaves skin
  2. sweat glands induced; sweat evaporation
    - > body temp drops (-)
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22
Q

why frostbite

A

prioritize important organs

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23
Q

cryopreservation

A

suspending life through freezing
- frozen cytosol can expand to break the cell membrane

some human parts can be preserved:
semen
blood
tissue samples
eggs
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24
Q

frozen wood frogs

A

able to freeze whole body and survive

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25
Q

organs responsible for excretion

A

liver
kidneys
bladder

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26
Q

excretion

A

removal of metabolic wastes

- not feces (not used, therefore not metabolic waste)

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27
Q

urine

A 
solution of metabolic waste
- urea and uric acid
- salts
- organic compounds
- water
fluid for urine come form filtered blood and extracellular fluid (ECF) which surrounds cells
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28
Q

urea

A

product of NH3 and CO2

deamination - removal of amine group (NH3 released when liver breaks down proteins)

reacts w CO2 to produce less toxic urea

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29
Q

uric acid

A

product of nucleic acid (purine bases) breakdown

released through liver metabolism

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30
Q

role of kidneys

A

urea and uric acid are filtered through the kidney

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31
Q

how do amoeba remove waste

A

contractile vacuole

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32
Q

how do earthworms remove waste

A

secretion

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33
Q

how do fish remove waste

A

excrete ammonia through gills

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34
Q

how do birds remove waste

A

excrete uric acid with feces

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35
Q

renal system

A

referring to the kidney

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36
Q

role of kidney

A
  1. blood filtration
  2. waste excretion
  3. acid/base balance
  4. blood pressure regulation
  5. hormone secretion
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37
Q

kidney blood flow

A

blood enters the kidney through the renal artery
- renal arteries stem from the aorta

filtered blood exits the kidney through the renal vein
- renal veins flow into the inferior vena cava

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38
Q

renal artery blood is filtered through ___

A

nephrons

abt a million nephrons make up the kidney

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39
Q

nephrons

A

nephrons collect liquids to be excreted

fluids are exchanged btw the nephron before blood is returned to renal vein

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40
Q
  1. the renal artery is split into ___
  2. blood goes to ___
  3. blood leaves through ___
A
  1. afferent arterioles
  2. glomerulus (capillary bed)
  3. efferent arterioles
    (no veins involved!)
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41
Q

efferent arterioles are the beginning of a network of ___ that wrap around the ___

A

peritubular capillaries

nephron

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42
Q

nephrons begin surrounding the glomerulus with the ___ structure
+ the next four steps

A

Bowman’s capsule

  • fluids to become urine flow to narrow proximal tubule
  • urine goes through loop of Henle
  • urine goes through distal tubule
  • urine from multiple nephrons go into collecting duct
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43
Q

space-interstitial fluid

A

Extracellular fluid space, around loop of Henle

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44
Q

kidney structure

A

renal cortex - outside of kidney; location of Bowman’s capsule

renal medulla - middle of kidney; location of loop of Henle

renal pelvis - location of the ends of collecting ducts

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45
Q

urine flow

A

urine leaves the renal pelvis through the ureters and travels to the bladder. fluid leaves body through urethra.

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46
Q

at ___ of urine in bladder, walls stretch and signals are sent to the brain

at ___, urine will be involuntarily released

A

~200mL

~600mL

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47
Q

urinary tract infection (UTI)

A

caused by bacterial growth in the urethra or bladder

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48
Q

symptoms of UTI

A
  • frequent urination
  • sensation of needing to urinate
  • blood in urine
  • discharge in urine (cloudy)
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49
Q

nephron structure

A 
(check diagram)
efferent arteriole
afferent arteriole
glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
proximal tubule
loop of Henle
distal tubule
collecting duct
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50
Q

urinary system

A 
(check diagram)
aorta
inferior vena cava
renal artery
renal vein
kidney
ureter
bladder
urethra
renal cortex
renal medulla
renal pelvis
nephrons
ureter
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51
Q

three functions of urine formation

A
  1. filtration - movement of fluids from the glomerular blood to the Bowman’s capsule
  2. reabsorption - transfer of fluids from nephron into peritubular capillaries
  3. secretion - transfer of fluids from peritubular capillaries into nephron
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52
Q

filtration

A

nutrients move from glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule due to high blood pressure
(65 mm Hg; normal ~25 mm Hg)

bigger molecules are filtered (H2O, NaCl, NOT platelets/red blood cells)

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53
Q

reabsorption

A

saves fluids for our body, takes back water and nutrients

  • 20% of fluid flowing into kidney is filtered into nephrons
  • less than 1% of nephron fluid is used to make urine
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54
Q

reabsorption vs secretion

A

reabsorption

  • protein transporters move nutrients into interstitial fluid and blood (btw capillaries and tube)
  • kidney tissues will only reabsorb a certain level of nutrients - threshold level

secretion
- protein transporters move wastes from blood to interstitial fluid to nephron

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55
Q

order of nephron structures

A
  1. Bowman’s capsule
  2. proximal tubule
  3. loop of Henle - descending limb
  4. loop of Henle - ascending limb
  5. distal tubule
  6. collecting duct
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56
Q

bowman’s capsule

A

filtration

water and dissolved solutes leave glomerulus; enter Bowman’s capsule

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57
Q

proximal tubule

A

selective reabsorption of nutrients (need transporters)

pH determined by HCO3- reabsorption of H+ secretion

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58
Q

loop of Henle - descending limb

A

only permeable to H2O (osmosis)

impermeable to salt

fluids in tube are being concentrated

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59
Q

loop of Henle - ascending limb

A

only permeable to salt (need ionic transporters)

impermeable to water

(when salt is reabsorbed, water follows from the descending limb and the flow continues)

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60
Q

distal tubule

A

selective reabsorption of nutrients (need transporters)

pH determined by HCO3- reabsorption and H+ secretion

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61
Q

collecting duct

A

urine formation by concentration of nephron fluid

any urea and urine that is reabsorbed is less than that was filtered into nephron

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62
Q

cortex & medulla in the nephron

A 
cortex:
- proximal tubule
- distal tubule
medulla:
- loop of Henle (both)
- collecting duct
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63
Q

kidney stones

A

crystallization of some urine solutes

2-3mm stone can obstruct flow to ureter

treatment:

  • increased water consumption
  • surgery
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64
Q

three physiological characteristics controlled through the kidney

A
  1. osmotic pressure
  2. blood pressure
  3. pH balance
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65
Q

osmotic pressure

A

water pressure due to the presence of solutes

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66
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

regulates blood osmotic pressure through kidneys

short peptide hormone

produced in hypothalamus, transported to pituitary gland

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67
Q

when would osmotic pressure be increased

A

sweating/dehydration

68
Q

increased ADH production leads to (2)

A

increase water resorption

dilute solutes in blood

69
Q

osmoreceptors

A

located in hypothalamus

detect increased osmotic pressure, sends signal to pituitary gland

70
Q

osmotic pressure (flowchart)

A

increased osmotic pressure ->
osmoreceptors (+) ->
pituitary gland; release ADH (+)->

  1. increased sensation of thirst
  2. increased water reabsorption by kidney

decreased osmotic pressure (-) ->

71
Q

ADH increases H2O reabsorption, so

A

dilutes blood

concentrates urine

72
Q

what part of the nephron does ADH affect

A

collecting ducts

73
Q

hormones only active when ___

hormones usually produced, but activated by ___

hormones _______ rather than waiting for transcription/translation

A

needed

enzyme cleavage

readily available

74
Q

blood pressure

A

increase force of blood on blood vessels

increase osmotic pressure, increase blood pressure

75
Q

aldosterone

A

steroid hormone which increases Na+ reabsorption in kidneys

  • increased H2O in blood
  • increased blood pressure

produced in adrenal gland (above kidney)

76
Q

decreased water pressure is detected by ______

A

juxtaglomerular apparatus (receptors next to the glomerulus)

77
Q

what enzyme is released w low blood pressure

A

renin

78
Q

what does renin do

A

angiotensinogen ->

angiotensin

79
Q

functions of angiotensin (2)

A
  1. causes blood vessel constriction

2. stimulates aldosterone release

80
Q

blood pressure (flow chart)

A

low blood pressure ->
juxtaglomerular apparatus (+) ->
cells to release renin; produce angiotensin (+) ->

  1. constrict blood vessels
  2. induce aldosterone release; increase Na+ reabsorption

blood pressure increases (-) ->

81
Q

buffers

A

conjugate acid-base pairs

solutions w solutes + strong acid/base ->
no significant change

82
Q

conversion of CO2 to other compounds help regulate blood pH

A

H2O + CO2
H2CO3
HCO3- + H+

H2CO3 - carbonic acid
HCO3 - carbonate ion

HCO3- is reabsorbed in the proximal and distal tubules

83
Q

in pancreas:

two cell types? what do they make

A

digestive enzymes - exocrine acini

hormones - islets of Langerhans

84
Q

what % of pancreas are the islets of Langerhans

A

1-2%

85
Q

what two hormones are made in islets of Langerhans? by what type of cell?

A
  1. insulin - beta cells

2. glucagon - alpha cells

86
Q

insulin function flowchart

A

hyperglycemia ->
beta cells (+) ->
cellular signals for insulin release (+) ->

  1. increased glucose uptake
  2. glycogen production in liver

decreased blood sugar (-) ->

87
Q

glucagon function flowchart

A

hypoglycemia ->
alpha cells (+) ->
cellular signals for glucagon release (+) ->

  1. glucose release from liver
  2. glucose production in liver

increased blood sugar (-) ->

88
Q

types of diabetes (3)

A
  1. Diabetes Mellitus - Type 1
  2. Diabetes Mellitus - Type 2
  3. Diabetes Insipidus
89
Q

Diabetes Mellitus - Type I

aka, cause, symptoms, treatment

A

aka juvenile diabetes

Cause
- immune system attacking insulin-producing beta cells

Symptoms
- increased thirst, hunger, and urination

Treatment
- daily dosage of insulin

90
Q

Diabetes Mellitus - Type II

formerly known as, cause, symptoms, treatment

A

formerly known as adult-onset diabetes

Cause
- insulin resistance/deficiency

Symptoms

  • increased thirst, hunger, and urination
  • fatigue/lethargy

Treatment

  • healthy diet and exercise
  • medication only upon progression of disease state
91
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

cause, symptom, treatment

A

Cause
- deficiency of ADH

Symptoms

  • excessive thirst and urination
  • reduction of fluid intake does not affect urination frequency
  • no increased blood glucose

Treatment
- ADH replacement/stimulating medication

92
Q

insulin isolation

A
  • tied off ducts to digestive tract
  • cell producing digestive enzymes shriveled
  • only islets of Langerhans remained
93
Q

hormone type of insulin and glucagon

A

peptide hormone

94
Q

adrenal meaning

A

“next to” to the renal system

95
Q

two main sections of adrenal glands

A
  1. adrenal cortex (long-term stress) (outside)

2. adrenal medulla (short-term stress) (inside)

96
Q

adrenal cortex

what happens when theres long-term stress?

A

long-term stress sends ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

pituitary -ACTH-> adrenal cortex

makes hormones (2):

  1. glucocorticoids
  2. mineralcorticoids
97
Q

glucocorticoids

A

class of steroid hormones for glucose regulation, ex. cortisol

when stressed out:

  • glucose not taken in by muscles
  • amino acids made into glucose
  • fat tissue broken down for energy
98
Q

mineralcorticoids

A

class of steroid hormones for mineral regulation, ex. aldosterone

when stressed out:
- blood pressure rises due to increase sodium & H2O reabsorption

99
Q

adrenal medulla

what happens when theres short-term stress

A

short-term stress detected by hypothalamus

makes hormones (2):

  1. epinephrine (adrenaline)
  2. norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
100
Q

what are epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

both are catecholamines, also neurotransmitters

101
Q

type of hormone

epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

polar, amino acid-like

102
Q

flight/fight/freeze response

A
  • increased heart rate
  • increased breathing
  • blood vessel dilation -> more O2 delivery
  • iris dilation -> collect max visual info

induced by catecholamine release

103
Q

three glands that help regulate metabolism

A
  1. thyroid gland
  2. parathyroid gland
  3. anterior pituitary
104
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • regulates glucose metabolism
  • regulates growth and tissue differentiation
  • base of neck, anterior to larynx
105
Q

thyroid gland produces 2 hormones

what do both contain

A
  1. thyroxine (T4)
  2. iodothyronine (T3)

both contain iodine

106
Q

both T3 & T4 are derived from ___

A

the amino acid tyrosine

107
Q

hormone type

T3 & T4

A

hydrophobic

108
Q

thyroid hormone regulation

A 
signal?
- change in metabolic rate
What detects?
- hypothalamus
- releases thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) to signal to
the pituitary
What does TRH do?
- signals pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH)
109
Q

thyroxine regulation flowchart

A

decreased metabolism ->
hypothalamus (+) -> TRH
pituitary gland to release TSH (+) ->
thyroid gland to release thyroxine (+) ->

increase sugar metabolism

decreased blood sugar (-) ->

110
Q

thyroid disorders

A
  1. hyperthyroidism
  2. hypothyroidism
  3. goiters
111
Q

hyperthyroidism

cause, symptom, treatment

A

high thyroxine release

Cause
- “hot” nodules/Grave’s disease (whole thyroid)

Symptoms

  • high glucose metabolism
  • > weight loss with increased appetite
  • > anxiety
  • > increased heat release

Treatment
- suppressive medication

112
Q

hypothyroidism

cause, symptom, treatment

A

low thyroxine release

Cause
- iodine deficiency

Symptoms

  • low glucose metabolism
  • > weight gain
  • > fatigue
  • > decreased heat release

Treatment
- synthetic hormone medication

113
Q

goiters

A

low iodine levels result in enlarged thyroid glands

114
Q

why is table salt iodized

A

to prevent iodine deficiency

115
Q

where is calcium stored

A

99% is stored in bones for structure

116
Q

roles of calcium

A
  1. required for muscle contraction
  2. important in neuronal communication
  3. bone structure maintenance
117
Q

bone structure

osteoblasts & osteoclasts

A

osteoblasts - cell which build bones

osteoclasts - cells which break down bones (release calcium)

118
Q

parathyroid glands

A

smaller glands within the thyroid gland

increases Ca2+ levels in blood

produces parathyroid hormones (PTH)

119
Q

calcium level regulation flowchart

A 
hypocalcemia ->
parathyroid gland (+) ->
release PTH (+) ->
  1. increased Ca2+ uptake in intestines (diet) & kidneys (reabsorption)
  2. increases osteoclast activity
  3. activation of vitamin D; required for Ca2+ absorption

increased Ca2+ levels ->

120
Q

what are responsible for decreasing high calcium levels

A

different organ and hormone responsible from increasing Ca2+

organ = thyroid
hormone = calcitonin
121
Q

calcium level regulation flowchart

A 
hypercalcemia ->
thyroid gland (+) ->
release calcitonin (+) ->
  1. inhibits Ca2+ absorption by intestines
  2. decreases osteoclast activity

decreased Ca2+ levels (-) ->

122
Q

type of hormone

PTH, calcitonin, vitamin D

A

peptide
peptide
steroid-based

123
Q

parathyroid disorders

A
  1. hypoparathyroidism

2. hyperparathyroidism

124
Q

hypoparathyroidism

cause, symptom, treatment

A

Cause

  • absent parathyroid from birth
  • accidental removal upon thyroid removal

Symptoms

  • decreased Ca2+ levels in blood
  • sensitive nerves
  • uncontrollable spasms of the limbs

Treatment
- daily calcium and vitamin D supplements

125
Q

hyperparathyroidism

cause, symptom, treatment

A

Cause
- tumors on the parathyroid gland

Symptoms

  • kidney stones
  • aches & pains
  • osteoporosis
  • depression & fatigue

Treatment
- removal of parathyroid tissue

126
Q

gonadotropic hormones

A

regulate gonad development (male and female)

produced in the pituitary; released upon hypothalamus signal

127
Q

other reproductive hormones

A
  1. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

2. luteinizing hormone (LH)

128
Q

male reproductive hormones (2)

type

made where

A
  1. androsterone
  2. testosterone

both steroid

made in testes

129
Q

types of testes cells (2)

A
  1. Leydig interstitial cells - make hormones

2. Sertoli cells - make sperm

130
Q

male gonad development

A
  1. hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
  2. pituitary gland releases FSH & LH
  3. FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to make sperm
  4. LH stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
131
Q

role of testerone

A
  • stimulates spermatogenesis (life time process)
  • develops male characteristics at puberty
  • increased secretion of body oils (commonly associated to body odour)
132
Q

male reproductive system flowchart

A

refer to diagram

133
Q

female reproductive system hormones

A
  1. estrogen (steroid)
  2. progesterone (steroid)

both made in the ovaries

134
Q

ovary follicle cells (2)

A
  1. primary oocyte - fertilized by sperm

2. granulosa cells - provide nutrients for primary oocyte

135
Q

female reproductive system

A
  • monthly cycle until menopause (~12-50 yrs)
  • one ovum produced per germ cell
  • female hormones responsible for oogenesis and ovulation
136
Q

menstrual cycle

A
  1. menstruation (flow phase)
  2. follicular phase
  3. ovulation
  4. luteal phase/secretory stage
137
Q

menstrual cycle -

1. menstruation (flow phase)

A
  • sloughing of endometrial cells
  • no ovum fertilization
  • estrogen and progesterone levels low
138
Q

menstrual cycle -

2. follicular phase

A
  • follicle maturation

- estrogen secretion by granulosa cells

139
Q

menstrual cycle -

3. ovulation

A
  • ovum leaves ovary
  • granulosa cells become corpus luteum
  • corpus luteum begins to secrete progesterone
  • estrogen levels decrease
140
Q

menstrual cycle -

4. luteal phase/secretory stage

A
  • corpus luteum secretes progesterone & estrogen

- progesterone encourages endometrium development

141
Q

female gonad development

A
  • GnRH, FSH, and LH involved
    1. hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
    2. pituitary gland releases FSH & LH
    3. FSH matures follicle
    4. LH causes ovulation and causes corpus luteum maturation
142
Q

female reproductive system flowchart

A

check diagram

143
Q

menopause

A
  • ovaries lose responsiveness to FSH and LH
  • usu occurs btw ages 46 and 54
  • most other mammals do not undergo menopause
144
Q

major subsystems in vertebrate nervous systems (2)

A
  1. central nervous system (CNS)

2. peripheral nervous system (PNS)

145
Q

main components of central nervous system (2)

A
  1. brain

2. spinal cord

146
Q

main nerve types of peripheral nervous system (2)

A
  1. somatic nerves
    - involved w voluntary movement
    - > senses/movement
  2. autonomic nerves
    - involved w involuntary movement
    - > sympathetic/parasympathetic systems
147
Q

major cell types of the nervous system (2)

A
  1. neurons
    - conduct electrical signals
  2. glial cells
    - structural & insulating support for neurons
148
Q

neuron structure handout

A

check diagram

149
Q

how do electrical signals pass through cells

A

membrane potential (video)

150
Q

neuron signalling (role of glial cells)

A
  • glial cells provide insulation for electrical impulses to pass through axon
  • glial cell membrane has a lot of lipid molecules (called a myelin sheath when wrapped around an axon)
151
Q

sensory neuron

aka, function, found where

A

aka afferent neurons

  • carries signals from sensory receptors to the CNS for processing
  • > photoreceptors (eyes)
  • > chemoreceptors (nose)
  • > thermoreceptors (skin)
  • found in clusters of neurons - ganglia
152
Q

what are ganglia

A

clusters of neurons

153
Q

interneuron

aka, function

A

aka association neurons

  • receives incoming signals from sensory neurons
  • delivers outgoing signals to neurons responsible for responses
154
Q

motor neuron

aka, connected to?

A

aka efferent neurons

  • connected to tissues that respond according to what was detected
  • > muscle contraction
  • > gland secretion
155
Q

do neurons regenerate

A

yes, peripheral system neurons will repair faster than central system neurons

156
Q

action potential

A

animation (video)

  • polarized membrane
  • depolarization
  • repolarization
157
Q

polarized membrane

A

positive exterior, negative interior

  • maintained by sodium-potassium pump
158
Q

depolarization

A

negative exterior, positive interior

  • voltage-dependent channels open to allow sodium ions to rush into cell
159
Q

repolarization

A

positive exterior, negative interior

  • voltage-dependent channels open to allow potassium ions to leave the cell
  • restored by sodium-potassium pump
160
Q

two states of the neurons (action potential)

A
  1. resting potential: -70mV
    - required before a signal can be detected
  2. action potential: +40mV
    - change that occurs to transmit signal
161
Q

action potential factors

A
  1. refractory period
  2. threshold
  3. axon diameter
  4. saltatory conduction
162
Q

refractory period

A

time is needed to re-establish the resting potential after an action potential has been initiated

  • no other action can be initiated, no matter how strong the signal
163
Q

threshold level

A

different neurons have differing threshold levels before an action potential will proceed

sensitive neurons will have low threshold values

164
Q

all-or-none response

A

neurons will or will not fire

165
Q

saltatory conduction

A

Na+ and K+ exchange can only occur where the axons are exposed to the extracellular fluid (node of Ranvier)

  • allows for faster signal conduction along the axon

Gr. 12 ap bio (8 decks)

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