Unit 4. (Final) Flashcards
typically refers to anything that came after and was influenced by the Enlightenment.
Modern
In terms of Modernism/ Post Modernism, the 20th century was a time of rediscovering Rhetoric as an
Interdisciplinary Theory of Language and Meaning-Making
The following quote is an example of what?
“The problem for Rhetorical theory after the birth of Enlightenment liberalism lies in the central role of moral autonomy in the emerging view of the liberal self. The very philosophy of liberal democracy itself was based on a fundamental distrust of persuasion.” (James Arnt Aune)
Modernism in Rhetoric
What the alternative to the dominant model of expository writing in 20th century rhetoric and composition?
Creative writing, reflective essays and autobiographies.
Comprehensive theory of language as effective discourse.
Rhetoric (20th century Modern vs. Post Modern)
Overlapping Themes in the Modern/Post Modern 20th century.
- Language vs. Meaning
- Ethics vs. Ideology
- Argument vs. Knowledge
- Language vs. Meaning
- Ethics vs. Ideology
- Argument vs. Knowledge
Overlapping Themes in the Modern/Post Modern 20th century.
Typically refers to anything that came after and was influenced by the Enlightenment.
“Modern”
refers to what comes after modernism has broken down.
“Postmodern”
“Modern”
typically refers to anything that came after and was influenced by the Enlightenment.
“Postmodern”
refers to what comes after modernism has broken down.
- Not troubled by unanswered questions
- Get rid of the metanarrative
- Rejection of modern ideas
- More playful and fun
Postmodern
How is Postmodernism different from Modernism?
- Not troubled by unanswered questions
- Get rid of the metanarrative
- Rejection of modern ideas
- More playful and fun
The following quote is an example of what?
“originally used in the 1980s by American poet Charles Olson and literary critic Ihab Hassan to refer to a new style in architecture, literature, and music, characterized by a playful quality, as opposed to the high seriousness of modernist art [. . .]; erosion of boundaries between high and popular culture; and, finally, a celebration of ‘mere’ style, surface, the free play of signifiers without a signified” (James Arnt Aune)
Postmodernism in Rhetoric
Not troubled by unanswered questions
Postmodern
20th Century Rhetoric
returns to the university as a legitimate academic discipline
Returns to the university as a legitimate academic discipline
20th Century Rhetoric
Postmodern
Not troubled by unanswered questions.
People had become familiar with rhetorical education and practices in the 19th century.
Changes in the practice and teaching of rhetoric
In the early 20th century, rhetoric was seen as an effective means to teach the basic skills of writing and teaching.
Changes in the practice and teaching of rhetoric
Field of speech communication as a distinct academic discipline was formed in 1914 (National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking)
Changes in the practice and teaching of rhetoric
Changes in the practice and teaching of rhetoric
- People had become familiar with rhetorical education and practices in the 19th century.
- In the early 20th century, rhetoric was seen as an effective means to teach the basic skills of writing and teaching.
- Field of speech communication as a distinct academic discipline was formed in 1914 (National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking)
(National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking)
academic discipline was formed in 1914
1920s: Academic departments of speech and composition moved from pedagogical to theoretical questions.
Development of criticism and theory
1940s and 1950s: Influential scholars from outside of the discipline “discovered” rhetoric.
Development of criticism and theory
1960s and 1970s: New student movements challenged academia to seek justice for oppressed people.
Development of criticism and theory
Development of criticism and theory
- 1920s: Academic departments of speech and composition moved from pedagogical to theoretical questions.
- 1940s and 1950s: Influential scholars from outside of the discipline “discovered” rhetoric.
- 1960s and 1970s: New student movements challenged academia to seek justice for oppressed people.
Linguistics, Literary Theory, and Philosophy
Three Key Influences on the Spread of Rhetoric
Three Key Influences on the Spread of Rhetoric
Linguistics, Literary Theory, and Philosophy
Linguistic Development
- Semiotics: the study of signs
- Two primary figures: American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) and Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (?-1913).
The study of signs
Semiotics
Semiotics
the study of signs
The following are apart of what 20th century development?
- Semiotics: the study of signs
- Two primary figures: American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) and Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (?-1913).
Linguistic Development
American philosopher (1839-1914)
Charles Sanders Peirce
Swiss linguist (?-1913)
Ferdinand de Saussure
Who was Charles Sanders Peirce
American philosopher (1839-1914)
Who was Ferdinand de Saussure?
Swiss linguist
Believed language was a systematic structure that refers to the world.
Peirce
Peirce Sign =
referent and interpretant
Believed Semiotics as a way to understand how meaning is produced.
Peirce
Peirce: LANGUAGE
a systematic structure that refers to the world.
Believed Sign = referent and interpretant
Peirce
Peirce: Semiotics
as a way to understand how meaning is produced.
Believed Meaning is determined by the relationship between the sign and the world.
Peirce
Pierce: Meaning
is determined by the relationship between the sign and the world.
Believed language was a timeless structure that refers primarily to itself.
Saussure
Saussure: Sign =
Signifier and signified
Believed Semiotics was a “science” of language.
Saussure
Saussure: Meaning
Determined by the differences among signs in a system.
Believed Meaning is determined by the differences among signs in a system.
Saussure
Saussure: LANGUAGE
A timeless structure that refers primarily to itself.
Believed Sign = signifier and signified
Saussure
Saussure: Semiotics
A “science” of language.
Peirce focused on ________
Meaning
Saussure focused on _________
System
According to Peirce in terms of sign the referent is
the actual thing
According to Peirce in terms of sign the interpretant is
Idea in head
Referent + Interpretant =
Sign (Peirce)
Signifier + Signified =
Sign (Saussure)
Sound-image like the word “tree” is an example of what?
signifier
Concept in the mind
signified
Signification
sign = signifier + signified
According to Saussure ________ is a system we can study how it is without focusing on things of the world.
Language
According to Saussure _______ Language is not dependent on reality.
Language
No concern about, “what the author actually means.”
Saussure (language)
Developments in Literary Theory
- Literary critics stopped focusing on the author and background and more on the text itself.
- Scholars challenged the 19th-century distinction bewteen poetic and ordinary language
The following are examples of what?
- Literary critics stopped focusing on the author and background and more on the text itself.
- Scholars challenged the 19th-century distinction bewteen poetic and ordinary language
Developments in Literary Theory
Shifted away from the ideal of an inherent, universal rationality to the idea that reason is socially constructed.
Philosophical Developments
20th cent
Philosophical Developments
Shifted away from the ideal of an inherent, universal rationality to the idea that reason is socially constructed.
The following are examples of what?
- Toulmin, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca challenged the formal logic of analytic philosophy and instead advocated for informal logic.
- Other philosophers took up the idea that rhetoric is epistemic, or knowledge-producing.
Philosophical Developments of the 20th century
Toulmin, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca challenged the
formal logic of analytic philosophy and instead advocated for informal logic.
Other philosophers took up the idea that rhetoric is _____________
epistemic, or knowledge-producing.
_________, __________, and ________ challenged the formal logic of analytic philosophy and instead advocated for informal logic.
Toulmin, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca
What does epistemic mean?
knowledge-producing
The turn to rhetoric also addressed questions of identity and difference
- Identity as socially constructed
- Influence of structuralism on identity
- “Universality” challenged
The following are examples of what?
- Identity as socially constructed
- Influence of structuralism on identity
- “Universality” challenged
The turn to rhetoric also addressed questions of identity and difference
According to Burke, what is the answer to the central question, “What is involved, when we say what people are doing and why they are doing it?”
- Using terms to explain human behavior
- Where is the motive (5 fingers)
- What people are doing and why they are doing it.
Viewed Rhetorical Discourse as Drama, Identification over Persuasion
KENNETH BURKE
Literary theorist who turned to rhetoric post- WWII
KENNETH BURKE
Starts with language as symbolic action.
KENNETH BURKE
Distinguishes action from motion.
KENNETH BURKE
What thinker said:
“The ‘symbolism’ of a word consists in the fact that no one quite uses the word in its mere dictionary sense. And the overtones of a word are revealed ‘by the company it keeps’ in the utterances of a given speaker or writer.” (Philosophy of Literary Form 35)
KENNETH BURKE
Globalist in the terms of definition of rhetoric.
KENNETH BURKE
Read Hitler’s “Mincomff” to figure out his rhetoric and how he had so much power over people.
KENNETH BURKE
GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES
1945
KENNETH BURKE
The following describes what?
-Opposed to “scientism”
-Examines not motives per se but how
people attribute motives
-Explores internal relationships (“ratios”) among the five key terms
-Terms reveal places where “ambiguities” arise; ambiguities enable change.
DRAMATISM
Opposed to “scientism
DRAMATISM
Examines not motives per se but how
people attribute motives
DRAMATISM
Explores internal relationships (“ratios”) among the five key terms
DRAMATISM
Terms reveal places where “ambiguities” arise; ambiguities enable change.
DRAMATISM
DRAMATISM
-Opposed to “scientism”
-Examines not motives per se but how
people attribute motives
-Explores internal relationships (“ratios”) among the five key terms
-Terms reveal places where “ambiguities” arise; ambiguities enable change.
“Men have talked about things in many ways, but the pentad offers a synoptic way to talk about their talk-about. For the resources of the five terms figure in the utterances about motives, throughout all human history” (Grammar, 1319)
Burke’s :
Act, Scene, Agent, Agency, Purpose
Name of what took place, in thought or deed; related to realism
Act
Background of act; related to materialism
Scene
Kind of person performing act; related to idealism
Agent
By what means or with what instruments the agent acted; related to pragmatism
Agency
What is Act?
The name of what took place, in thought or deed; related to realism
What is Scene?
Background of act; related to materialism
Why the agent could be said to have acted; related to mysticism
Purpose
What is Agent?
Kind of person performing act; related to idealism
What is Agency?
By what means or with what instruments the agent acted; related to pragmatism
What is Purpose?
Why the agent could be said to have acted; related to mysticism
“Everything happens for a reason” is an example of what?
Mysticism (related to Purpose)
“The hand of the market” is an example of what?
Idealism (related to Agent)
The most basic mode of persuasion
Identification
The following describes what?
“Here is perhaps the simplest case of persuasion. You persuade a man only insofar as you can talk his language by speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, idea, identifying your ways with his.” (Rhetoric, not in excerpt)
Identification (Burke)
Identification
The most basic mode of persuasion
The following describes what?
“In being identified with B, A is ‘substantially one’ with a person other than himself. Yet at the same time he remains unique, an individual locus of motives. Thus he is both joined and separate, at once a distinct substance and consubstantial with another.” (Rhetoric 1325)
Consubstantiality (Burke)
The following describes what?
“ _______ is affirmed with earnestness precisely because there is division. Identification is compensatory to division. If men were not apart from one another, there would be no need for the rhetorician to proclaim their unity.” (Rhetoric 1326)
Identification (Burke)
The following describes what?
“A doctrine of _________, either explicit or implicit, may be necessary to any way of life. For substance, in the old philosophies, was an act; and a way of life is an acting-together; and in acting together, men have common sensations, concepts, images, ideas, attitudes that make them consubstantial.” (Rhetoric 1326)
Consubstantiality (Burke)
The hoped-for result of identification. (identify but NOT identical)
Consubstantiality
Identification
The most basic mode of persuasion
Consubstantiality
The hoped-for result of identification. (identify but NOT identical)
According to Burke Language =
Symbolic Action
From Burke’s “Language As a Symbolic Action” (1966) what was said to be Directing the Attention ?
Terministic Screens
Terministic Screens
Directing the Attention
Reflection, Selection, Deflection
Symbolic Action =
Language (Burke)
The following describes what?
“Even if any given terminology is a reflection of reality, by its very nature as a terminology it must be a selection of reality; and to this extent it must function also as a deflection of reality” (Language 1341)
DIRECTING THE ATTENTION Terministic Screens (Burke)
Reflection, Selection, Deflection are examples of what?
Terministic Screens (Burke)
We must use terministic screens, since we can’t say anything without the use of terms” (Language 1344).
OBSERVATIONS IMPLICIT IN TERMS Terministic Screens (Burke)
RHETORIC: using language to induce cooperation
Burke
The following describes what?
“Many of the ‘observations’ are but implications of the particular terminology in terms of which the observations are made” (1341).
OBSERVATIONS IMPLICIT IN TERMS Terministic Screens (Burke)
LANGUAGE: symbolic action
Burke
Burke METHOD:
using dramatism to understand how human beings attribute motives
Burke RHETORIC:
Using language to induce cooperation
Burke TRUTH/KNOWLEDGE:
our understanding of the world is never complete or unskewed; it is always “selected, reflected, deflected” from reality by our motives.
METHOD: using dramatism to understand how
human beings attribute motives
Burke
TRUTH/KNOWLEDGE: our understanding of the world is never complete or unskewed; it is always “selected, reflected, deflected” from reality by our motives.
Burke
Burke LANGUAGE:
Symbolic action
Garbage truck is an example of what?
Substance
Murder is an example of what?
Mixed mode
Gold is and example of what?
Substance
DISCUSSION: Why did Perelman feel the need to redefine rhetoric, and from which ancient rhetorician did his new definition borrow heavily?
DISCUSSION: Does the new rhetoric have anything in common with the old? If so, what? How do they differ?
Focused on Reviving Rhetoric as Argumentation
Chaim Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca
Like Kenneth Burke, ________ turned to rhetoric in the 1940’s
Perelman
Although American departments of ______ had been established, European interest in rhetoric was still unusual. (Perelman)
Speech
Scholars from many fields were turning to ______ as a source for the study of argumentation.
rhetoric
Study of ___________ remains a vibrant subfield today.
argumentation
The following were the goals of what thinker?
- To offer an alternative to formal logic as a means of understanding arguments.
- To help us understand value judgments.
- To bridge the gap between thought and action, which they see as widened by traditional philosophical approaches to knowledge.
Perelman
Perelman’s main approach to understanding rhetoric
Argumentation
Thinker who introduced the idea of Formal vs. informal logic
Perelman
Wanted to offer an alternative to formal logic as a means of understanding arguments.
Perelman (Goals)
Specialized language for philosophers
Formal
Perelman
Wanted to help us understand value judgments.
Perelman (Goals)
Everyday argument is and example of what?
informal logic
Perelman
Tried to bridge the gap between thought and action, which they see as widened by traditional philosophical approaches to knowledge.
Perelman (Goals)
The following describes what?
“Nonformal argument consists, not of a chain of ideas of which some are derived from others according to accepted rules of inference, but rather of a web formed from all the arguments and all the reasons that combine to achieve the desired result.”
Perelman’s informal logic
The following describes what?
“The argumentative process consists in establishing a link by which acceptance, or adherence, is passed from one element to another, and this end can be reached either by leaving the various elements of the discourse unchanged and associated as they are or by making a dissociation of ideas.”
Perelman’s Two key forms of argument
What thinker focused on universal vs. particular audience
Perelman
What thinker focused on Practical reason?
Perelman
What thinker focused on Association and dissociation
Perelman
According to Perelman association is:
quasi-logical, arguments that resemble the real, arguments from particular cases
Rhetoric: emphasized persuasion and the study of how people use “good reasons.”
Perelman
Perelman Language:
Neither a mere reflection of reality nor completely arbitrary, but situated in and created by a community of users
Method: must be general but responsive to particular situations
Perelman
Perelman Truth/knowledge:
There is no such thing as absolute truth.
Perelman Rhetoric:
Emphasized persuasion and the study of how people use “good reasons.”
Language: neither a mere reflection of reality nor completely arbitrary, but situated in and created by a community of users
Perelman
Perelman Method:
Must be general but responsive to particular situations
Truth/knowledge: there is no such thing as absolute truth.
Perelman
Proposed the idea of stripping away everything you’ve ever learned and replacing it with reason. In a sense responding to De Carte
Perelman
The following are required in order for what?
- The giving of good reason
- From someone to someone else. (Addressed)
- Must have good will, conventional rules, common language.
- Certainty is impossible
Argumentation
Perelman
Always occurs in realms were certainty is impossible
Argumentation
Perelman
According to Perelman an Ideal audience would be
Universal
Audience that is thought to made up reasonable and competent people
Universal
According to Perelman target audience is
Particular
Alternative to symbolic logic
Practical reason
Would help to establish rules and models of reasonable action.
Practical reason
Greek word for a type of wisdom or intelligence, specifically the virtue of practical thought, which is a common topic of discussion in philosophy. (Perelman)
Phronesis
The following is an example of what?
“I am muslim but not a terrorist”
Dissassociation
DISCUSSION: Although the term “signify” is discussed in depth, it is difficult to form a solid definition of what signifying is. How would you define the term signify, as discussed in the Gates reading?
_________ the master trope of black speech
Signifyin(g)
__________ became an important category for scholars studying language. (Gates)
Identity
Gates’s approach to Signifyin(g) critiques
the dominant way of theorizing language use.
Responds to Saussure’s understanding of language and signification.
Gates
The rhetorical strategies used by members of the black community to draw attention to their own verbal power and communicate through indirection.
Signifyin(g)
Signifyin(g)
- Black
- Rhetorical
- Vertical (paradigmatic)
- Inclusion of many meanings
The following describes what?
- Semantic
- Horizontal (syntagmatic)
- exclusion
signifying
The following describes what?
- Rhetorical
- Vertical (paradigmatic)
- Inclusion of many meanings
Signifyin(g)
signifying
- White
- Semantic
- Horizontal (syntagmatic)
- exclusion
RHETORIC: daily speech as a form of action
Gates
Gates METHOD:
METHOD: Signifyin(g) is learned through constant practice; the concept of Signification can be used to better understand black speech and literature.
LANGUAGE: see all language as “tropological”
Gates
TRUTH: not as important as language
Gates
Gates RHETORIC:
Daily speech as a form of action
Gates LANGUAGE:
See all language as “tropological”
Gates TRUTH:
Not as important as language
METHOD: Signifyin(g) is learned through constant practice; the concept of Signification can be used to better understand black speech and literature.
Gates
Applies only to black speech
Signifyin(g)
The following are examples of what?
Rapping
yo mama jokes
street cred
shade.
Signifyin(g)
What song (discussed in lecture) used indirection and double meanings was said to an example of Signifyin(g) ?
Steal Away to Jesus by Angola Choir
Character used to mobilize blacks
Signifyin(g) Monkey
Saw discourse as a form of social action rather than a reflection of “reality” or a representation of “truth”
Foucault
Thinker best known for two concepts: discourse and discipline.
Foucault
Main focus was prison reform
Foucault
Thinker that took an “anti-foundational” approach to intellectual inquiry.
Foucault
His work draws on the “sophistical” line of thought in the rhetorical tradition.
Foucault
Foucault’s Archeology of the Knowledge seeks to
“unearth” how discourse creates knowledge
Contextual conditions that enable discourse to create meaning
Foucault’s Rules of Formation
What are Foucault’s Rules of Formation
- Step One: map the surfaces of their emergence.
- Step Two: describe the authorities of delimitation.
- Step Three: analyze the grids of specification.
Seeks to “unearth” how discourse creates knowledge
Archeology of the Knowledge (Foucault) 1969
The following describes what?
“One might say, then, that a discursive formation is defined (as far as its objects are concerned, at least) if one can establish such a group; if one can show how any particular object of discourse finds in it its place and law of emergence; if one can show that it may give birth simultaneously or successively to mutually exclusive objects, without having to modify itself”
Foucault On discursive formations
The “limit” of discourse: neither internal nor external to discourse.
Discursive relations
What questions must be asked when establishing Discursive relations?
- First question: “Who is speaking?”
- Second question: What are the “institutional sites” from which the speaker produces discourse?
- Third question: What is the position of the subject?
The ______ of discourse: neither internal nor external to discourse.
“limit”
The _______ is another word for the human self, but it emphasizes the idea that the individual is “created” by discourse—that is, your experience of who you are and where you fit in society is not created by you but by the discursive systems in which you live.
“subject”
The positions (modes) a subject can occupy when creating (enunciating) a discourse
Enunciative modality
Statement: discourse:: part: whole
Enunciative Function
The following are required in order for what?
- It is linked to a “subject position.”
- It appears in an “associated domain.”
- It has a “material existence.”
Enunciative Function
Work focuses on how humans try to control discourse and make it serve their “will to truth”
The Order of Discourse (Foucault)
The following describes what?
“that in every society the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized, and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its change events, to evade its ponderous, formidable materiality”
Foucault’s main hypothesis in “The Order of Discourse”
The following describes what?
- The forbidden speech
- The division of madness from reason
- The will to truth
External Procedures: Systems of Exclusion
-The Order of Discourse (Foucault)
_________ serve to classify, order, or distribute discourse in particular ways.
Internal procedures
The following are required in order for what?
- Primary and secondary texts
- Author
- Disciplines
Internal procedures
-The Order of Discourse (Foucault)
The following are required in order for what?
- Rituals
- Societies of discourse
- Doctrines
- Social appropriations
Final Procedures: Rules for Subjects
-The Order of Discourse (Foucault)
The following describes what?
“We must call into question our will to truth, restore to discourse its character as an event, and finally throw off the sovereignty of the signifier.”
Facing our fear of discourse
-The Order of Discourse (Foucault)
Another word for Foucault’s “discourse”
RHETORIC
Foucault LANGUAGE:
follows Saussure’s general system of signs, but emphasizes the material reality of this system.
METHOD: deconstructive and anti-foundational; uses language strategically in his writing to challenge accepted ideas.
Foucault
LANGUAGE: Follows Saussure’s general system of signs, but emphasizes the material reality of this system.
Foucault
RHETORIC:“discourse”
Foucault
Foucault METHOD:
deconstructive and anti-foundational; uses language strategically in his writing to challenge accepted ideas.
TRUTH/KNOWLEDGE: produced through discourse
Foucault
Foucault TRUTH/KNOWLEDGE
produced through discourse
Gates sees ________ as the master trope of black rhetoric.
Signifyin(g)
According to Gates, the setting for speech interactions in the black community include
- Church
- Home
- Streets
Speech interactions in the black community do not occur in
School
Gate’s understanding of the process of signification is influenced most by
Ferdinand de Saussure
In the Monkey Tales, the Monkey uses language to trick the ______
Lion
Like _______, Gates views rhetors as a set of tropes that constitute language.
Nietzsche
During the end of the 20th century, a “theory of sign and signification” was developed. This theory is called
Semiotics
The editors claim that which two disciplines had the most influence on modern and post modern rhetorical theory?
Literary theory and philosophy
Foucault was born in
Poitiers, France
What we have called “rhetoric” in this course, Foucault would call
Discourse, or Discursive Formations
Foucault concentrates most on the relationship between
Power and Knowledge
Foucault lived during the ____ century CE.
20th
According to Foucault, the table of context of your textbook is an example of a
Grid of specification.
According to Foucault, What is taken to be true always depends upon the _______, or a particular field of discourse.
Context
According to Foucault, __________ is produced by discourse.
Knowledge
In his anti-foundational tendencies, Foucault is most like which 19th century thinker?
Nietzsche
Burke promotes the process of _______ over ____ as the central function of rhetoric.
Identification, persuasion
Burke was born in
Pittsburgh, PA
To best describe the 5 terms of dramatism, Burke compares them to
the fingers on a hand
Burke calls the relationships between the various dramatistic terms
Ratios
Burke argues that _______ idea of substance is ambiguous rather than clearly defined, as that person had thought.
Locke’s
Identify the 5 terms of dramatism (Burke)
- Act
- Scene
- Agent
- Agency
- Purpose
Perelman claims that philosophy is a
a form pf rhetoric
According to Perlman and Lucie O-T, the members of the ________ audience are brought together by shared values, whereas the members of the imagined _______ audience are persuaded purely by rational argument.
particular, universal
Perelman and O-T argue that language is
created by community
“Quasi-logical” arguments are a type of
association
For Perelman, a speaker most effectively gains adherence for her arguments by
giving good reason
In The Realm of Rhetoric, Perelman summarizes several thinkers’ ideas on rhetoric. Identify two individuals mentioned by Perelman that we have read in class.
Plato, Aristotle, Gorgias
