Unit 1 Flashcards
Changes over time Accrues layers of meaning Functions as a “repertoire” Enables and constrains Adoptable and adaptable Tensions between center and margin Involves ritual and reflection
Tradition
Changes over time
Accrues layers of meaning
Functions as a “repertoire”
Tradition
Enables and constrains
Adoptable and adaptable
Tensions between center and margin
Involves ritual and reflection
Tradition
Tied to historical context No substance? The Supplement Promiscuous Promising and problematic What counts?
Rhetorical
Tied to historical context
No substance?
The Supplement
Rhetorical
Promiscuous
Promising and problematic
What counts?
Rhetorical
Origins of Rhetoric
Ancient Greece
Practiced Rhetoric in 5th Cent. BCE
The Sophists
The Sophists: RHETORIC
a morally neutral, powerful art
LANGUAGE: used to induce belief
The Sophists
The Sophists: TRUTH
created by humans; knowledge limited because it’s only accessible through sense perception
METHOD: explore and present opposing arguments
The Sophists
The Sophists: EDUCATION
all can be taught. . . for a price
ETHICS: because what is true is situational, so is what is good and right
The Sophists
Gorgias, “The Encomium of Helen”
414 BCE
“Speech is a powerful lord, which by means of the finest and most invisible body effects the divinest works”
Gorgias, “The Encomium of Helen”
Rhetoric is powerful; knowledge is incomplete
Gorgias
Gorgias: Purpose
To free Helen from blame.
Gorgias :Four explanations of rhetorical power**
fate, force, speech, love
ca. 403-395 BCE
Dissoi Logoi
You have to explore different perspectives to gain knowledge.
Dissoi Logoi
Purpose: to show that issues can an should be
argued from both sides; perspective and situation can greatly alter your argument.
Dissoi Logoi
Works against absolute Truth.
Dissoi Logoi
Offers kairos as an alternative.
Dissoi Logoi
First to respond to the Sophists
Isocrates and Plato
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists”
ca. 390 BCE
RHETORIC is an art, not a science or set of formulas.
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists”
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists” TRUTH
is less important than kairos.
METHOD for learning rhetoric required natural talent, practice in different situations, and instruction in general principles.
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists”
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists” EDUCA TION
All can be educated, and those who are should be equipped to contribute to the state.
ETHICS: Blame the rhetor, not rhetoric itself, for moral failure.
Isocrates, “Against the Summary Sophists”
Rhetorical tradition
an evolving, adaptable blueprint.
An evolving, adaptable blueprint.
Rhetorical tradition
Speech has the power to create knowledge; it is the only, albeit flawed, way to know.
Gorgias
We must explore different perspectives in order to gain knowledge.
Dissoi Logoi
With natural talent and practice, people can use rhetorical education to serve the common good.
Isocrates
Dialogues respond to Sophists in a way that dramatically shaped the Western rhetorical tradition
Plato
Student of Socrates and was a teacher of many subjects
Plato
Truth is absolute, true knowledge transcends particulars of the sensible world, and human beings can seek and find such knowledge.
Plato
Theory of the Forms
Plato on truth
Allegory of the Cave
Plato on truth
doxa vs. episteme
Plato on truth
Believed true knowledge only accessible through diligent, careful study.
Plato
For dialogue he used the “Socratic Method”
Plato
Dialogue exemplifies the practice of “dialectic”
Plato
Dialogue exhibits dramatic features
Plato
Dialogue should be read like a play
Plato
The dialogue of Plato ≠
Socrates
Critiques the shortcomings of the Sophistic vision of rhetoric
Gorgias
Sets the stage for Socrates’ “true” rhetoric
Gorgias
Elaborates Socrates’ understanding of “true” rhetoric by comparing it to “true” forms of love
Phaedrus
Been said to be two volumes of the same story
Phaedrus and Gorgias
Phaedrus and Gorgias written by
Plato
Setting the stage with Chaerephon
Gorgias: structure and characters
Questioning Gorgias, the Old Sophist
Gorgias: structure and characters
Engaging Polus, the Young Stallion
Gorgias: structure and characters
Battling Callicles, the Pompous Statesman
Gorgias: structure and characters
analogy definition irony parables the political classic: evasion
Rhetorical Strategies used in the Gorgias
Rhetorical Strategies used in the Gorgias
analogy definition irony parables the political classic: evasion
RHETORIC: compared to cookery; can only produce opinion, not knowledge; leaves space for a “genuine art of rhetoric” (132).
Plato
Plato: TRUTH
it exists, but we can only know it through philosophical questioning
EDUCATION: Virtue can be taught only through philosophical exchange between teacher and student; sophists cannot teach virtue (133).
Plato
Plato: METHOD
Dialectic is the means of accessing truth.
ETHICS: Emphasizes the “good,” and implies that philosophy and “good” pursuits are oriented toward the end of justice.
Plato
Written toward the end of Plato’s life (ca. 370 BCE)
Limited interlocutors
Unique setting
the Phaedrus
Written toward the end of Plato’s life (ca. 370 BCE)
Phaedrus
Rhetorical strategies used in the Phaedrus
Humor Contrast Sarcasm Develops a modest ethos Employs rhetorical figures (e.g., metaphor, analogy, allegory)
Rhetorical strategies such as Humor, Contrast, Sarcasm are seen in which of Plato’s work?
the Phaedrus
“In both cases you must analyze a nature, in one that of the body and in the other that of the soul, if you are to proceed in a scientific manner, not merely by practice and routine, to impart health and strength to the body by prescribing medicine and diet, or by proper discourses and training to give to the soul the desired belief and virtue.”
the Phaedrus
Rhetoric and Medicine: Analogy
162-163
Said to have a Show and Tell structure
the Phaedrus
What is the four part structure of the Phaedrus?
- Phaedrus reports
- Socrates responds
- Socrates recants
- Phaedrus and Socrates engage in dialectical exchange
Lysias’s argument
young men should seek out the company of nonlovers over lovers, because the latter are selfish and harmful.
A teachable moment: “What do you think of the discourse, Socrates? Is it not wonderful, especially in diction?”
Phaedrus reads Lysias
Socrates Crafts a Grand Analogy
the Phaedrus
Argues for nonlover over the lover in the Phaedrus
Socrates
Begins by posing as a “mere amateur” in the Phaedrus
Socrates
___________ argues the same point as Lysias, but with completely different reasoning.
Socrates
___________ concludes: “These things, dear boy, you must bear in mind, and you must know that the fondness of the lover is not a matter of goodwill, but of appetite which he wishes to satisfy” (146)
Socrates
When Socrates recants he repents for his sins against
love
“For if any man of noble and gentle nature, one who was himself in love with another of the same sort, or who had ever been loved by such a one, had happened to hear us saying that lovers take up violent enmity because of small matters and are jealously disposed and harmful to the beloved, don’t you think he would imagine he was listening to people brought up among sailors, who had never seen a generous love?”
the Phaedrus
Socrates recant
147
When Socrates recants he
- Repents for his sins “against Love” (147)
- Promises to give a speech on why the lover should be favored over the nonlover.
- Classifies and defines
- The Charioteer (2 horses)
- Reveals other motives in conclusion
- Repents for his sins “against Love” (147)
- Promises to give a speech on why the lover should be favored over the nonlover.
- Classifies and defines
- The Charioteer (2 horses)
- Reveals other motives in conclusion
Socrates recant in the Phaedrus
“And if in our former discourse Phaedrus and I said anything harsh against thee, blame Lysias, the father of that discourse, make him to cease from such speeches, and turn him, as his brother Polemarchus is turned, toward philosophy, that his lover Phaedrus may no longer hesitate, as he does now, between two ways, but may direct his life with all singleness of purpose toward love and philosophical discourses.”
the Phaedrus
Socrates conclusion
155
Conclusion 1: A true art of speech must pursue truth (episteme) rather than opinions (doxa).
Socrates and Phaedrus discussion
Episteme
Truth
Doxa
Opinions
Conclusion 2: Dialecticians have mastered this art by dividing and combining.
Socrates and Phaedrus discussion
Conclusion 3: The art of rhetoric is more than basics.
Socrates and Phaedrus discussion
Conclusion 4: A true practitioner of rhetoric analyzes the soul
Socrates and Phaedrus discussion
Conclusions that came from Socrates and Phaedrus discussion in the Phaedrus
- A true art of speech must pursue truth (episteme) rather than opinions (doxa).
- Dialecticians have mastered this art by dividing and combining.
- The art of rhetoric is more than basics.
- A true practitioner of rhetoric analyzes the soul
- A true art of speech must pursue truth (episteme) rather than opinions (doxa).
- Dialecticians have mastered this art by dividing and combining.
- The art of rhetoric is more than basics.
- A true practitioner of rhetoric analyzes the soul
Conclusions that came from Socrates and Phaedrus discussion in the Phaedrus
Additional themes seen in the Phaedrus
- Words and reality
- Craft vs. art
- Rhetoric as situational art
RHETORIC: Gorgias vs. Phaedrus
Plato’s the Phaedrus
Phaedrus: METHOD
dialectic only means of accessing truth
TRUTH: absolute truth exists; we can only know it through careful inquiry
Plato’s the Phaedrus
Phaedrus: ETHICS
“good” pursuits must be oriented toward justice
EDUCATION: virtue can only be taught through philosophical exchange
Plato’s the Phaedrus
Rhetoric, Books I, II and III
Aristotle
384-322 BCE
Aristotle
- Distinguished student and teacher
* Central intellectual value: moderation
Aristotle
One of the most influential texts in the rhetorical tradition.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
Takes up where Plato’s recommendations in the Phaedrus leave off.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
Makes distinctions between certain and practical knowledge.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
Makes distinctions between dialectic and rhetoric as means for discovering such knowledge.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
Assumes rhetoric is an art.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
“Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic” (179).
Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric in his book Rhetoric
“the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (181).
Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric in his book Rhetoric
“And if it be objected that one who uses such power of speech unjustly might do great harm, that is a charge which may be made in common against all good things except virtue, and above all against the things that are must useful, as strength, health, wealth, generalship. A man can confer the greatest of benefits by a right use of these, and inflect the greatest of injuries by using them wrongly.”
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
What does Aristotle talk about in Book I of Rhetoric?
- Proofs
- Forms of reasoning
- Common and special topics
- Three genres of rhetorical discourse
- Four forms of government
“The one kind has merely to be used, the other has to be invented” (181).
Inartistic vs. Artistic Proofs according to Aristotle in Book I Rhetoric
Inartistic
using things that already exist
Artistic
inventing appeals using logos, pathos, ethos
using things that already exist
Inartistic
inventing appeals using logos, pathos, ethos
Artistic
Forms of reasoning defined in Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book I
- Syllogism
- Enthymeme (probabilities and signs)
- Maxim
- Example (real and imagined)
Topoi
Lines of Argument. Either common/general or special
Common Topoi
Intended for all speech
Intended for specific types of situations, audiences, and content.
Special Topoi
Who introduced the idea of Topoi?
Aristotle in Rhetoric Book I
What are the three genre’s of rhetoric ?
Forensic, Ceremonial, Deliberative
The genre of rhetoric that deals with: • Past • Justice • Guilt/innocence • Courtroom
Forensic
The genre of rhetoric that deals with: • Present • Virtue • Praise/blame • Ceremonies
Ceremonial
The genre of rhetoric that deals with: • Future • Expedience • Policy • Legislature
Deliberative
Ceremonial
- Present
- Virtue
- Praise/blame
- Ceremonies
Deliberative
- Future
- Expedience
- Policy
- Legislature
Forensic
- Past
- Justice
- Guilt/innocence
- Courtroom
Forms of government discussed by Aristotle
- Democracy
- Oligarchy
- Aristocracy
- Monarchy
- Democracy -> freedom
- Oligarchy -> wealth
- Aristocracy -> maintain institutions
- Monarchy -> power (esp. tyranny)
Forms of government
Democracy is associated with
freedom
Oligarchy is associated with
wealth
Aristocracy is associated with
maintaining institutions
Monarchy is associated with
power (esp. tyranny)
Which written work by Aristotle gave advice for all speeches?
Rhetoric Book II and Book III
Excerpts deal primarily with advice about the three proofs (pisteis): ethos, pathos, logos
Rhetoric Book II and Book III
“the orator must not only try to make the argument of his speech demonstrative and worthy of belief; he must also make his own character look right and put his hearers, who are to decide, into the right frame of mind” (213).
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book II and Book III
The following quote is a description of what?
“It follows that any one who is thought to have all three of these good qualities will inspire trust in his audience” (213)
Ethos
What are the three qualities of Ethos?
- Good sense
- Good character
- Good will
The following quote is a description of what?
“The Emotions are all those feelings that so change men as to affect their judgements and that are also attended by pain or pleasure” (214).
Pathos
Three things the speaker needs to know: (pathos)
- The state of mind of the person feeling x emotion
- The type of people toward whom they feel x
- On what grounds they feel x
According to Pathos audiences are also affected by
character type
Common topics of Logos
possible/impossible; greatness/smallness
Forms of reasoning according to Logos
- enthymeme
- maxim
- example
Logos
- Common Topics
- Forms of reasoning
- Return to the Topoi
Return to the topoi in Logos
- sound enthymemes
* bad enthymemes
Book III main focus was
Style, Arrangement, Delivery
According Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book III ________ is necessary in order to put the truth in the best light possible
Style
According Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book III Style must be ______
clear, appropriate, and well disguised.
According Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book III _______ should be simple and follow the dictates of common sense.
Arrangement
According Aristotle’s Rhetoric Book III _________ is something we must consider because the masses require it.
Good delivery
RHETORIC: finding the available means of persuasion; used to produce probable knowledge when information is incomplete
Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Book I,II,III)
Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Book I,II,III) TRUTH:
absolute truth exists, and it is accessible through empirical means; probable knowledge also valuable.
EDUCATION: rhetors must understand logic, human character, and human emotion; general guidelines needed to apply to particular situations
Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Book I,II,III)
Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Book I,II,III) METHOD:
persuasion is a form of demonstration, produced through enthymeme; favored deduction
ETHICS: rhetoric is a morally neutral art; the speaker’s purpose is to make it virtuous.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Book I,II,III)
106‐43 BCE thinker
Marcus Tullius Cicero
First century BCE Rome was a republic governed by a senate, in transition to its _______ form.
imperial
Rhetoric and democracy in the Roman Republic highlights the zero‐sum relationship between the use of _______ and physical violence.
persuasion and physical violence
_________ life illustrates the power of rhetoric as a tool for social mobility.
Cicero’s
Cicero had tremendous influence in this context, as a _________
practitioner and teacher of rhetoric.
“For as soon as our world‐empire had been established, and an enduring peace had assured us leisure, there was hardly a youth, athirst for fame, who did not deem it his duty to strive with might and main after eloquence”
De Oratore
When was Cicero’s De Oratore written?
55 BCE
What book of work was concerned with:
- What is the nature of rhetoric?
- What role should rhetoric play in the life of a healthy republic?
- Which is more important: vita contemplativa or vita activa?
- Who is the ideal orator, and how can this skill be achieved?
Cicero’s De Oratore (55 BCE)
The following quote is an the example for ________ in Cicero’s De Oratore:
“so that you may learn what men renowned above all others for eloquence have thought about the whole subject of oratory” (289).
Purpose
What was the central debate of De Oratore?
Can eloquence be taught, or is it simply the result of talent and experience?
Who were the main characters in Cicero’s De Oratore?
Crassus, Antonius, Scaevola
What is Scaevola’s argument when it comes to the nature of rhetoric in De Oratore?
Scaevola argues that rhetoric is limited, whereas Crassus argues that rhetoric is encompassing.
In De Oratore _______ argues that rhetoric is encompassing.
Crassus
According to De Oratore ________ is subservient to rhetoric.
Dialectic
According to De Oratore ________ can be practice, art, or natural talent.
Rhetoric
Question posed in De Oratore is ______
What is the nature of rhetoric
What is the role or rhetoric in the Republic according to De Oratore?
- Rhetoric’s realm: human life and conduct (299).
- The place of rhetoric in a healthy state: Crassus vs. Scaevola.
According to Crassus in De Oratore is the rhetor essential for a healthy state?
Yes
According to Scaevola in De Oratore is the rhetor essential for a healthy state?
No
The following is said by who and supports what argument:
“The wise control of the complete orator is that which chiefly upholds not only his own dignity, but the safety of countless individuals and of the entire State. Go forward therefore, my young friends, in your present course, and bend your energies to that study which engages you, that so it may be in your power to become a glory to yourselves, a source of service to your friends, and profitable members of the Republic” (294).
Crassus in De Oratore, that rhetors ARE essential for a healthy state.
The following is said by who and supports what argument:
“For my part, indeed, should I care to use examples from our own and other communities, I could cite more instances of damage done, than of aid given to the cause of the State by men of first‐ rate eloquence. . .” (294).
Scaevola in De Oratore, that rhetors are NOT essential for a healthy state
___________ believes that rhetors should be involved in public life, but only after having learned philosophy. (Contemplative Life) (De Oratore)
Crassus
___________ believes rhetors don’t need all of that philosophical learning, just experience and common sense (300). (De Oratore) (Active Life)
Antonius
According to _______ in De Oratore the ideal orator must have natural talent, sound training, considerable public experience, and exhaustive knowledge of both his art and others.
Crassus
According to _______ in De Oratore the ideal orator uses his common sense and natural talent to focus on winning cases in public life. Advice: find good models and practice imitating them, properly.
Antonius
METHOD: practice in real life situations, imitate good speakers, and follow Aristotle (kind of ).
Cicero’s De Oratore
Cicero’s De Oratore RHETORIC:
an art intended to be used in public service.
TRUTH: rhetoric is oriented toward the world of public affairs and, thus, producing probable knowledge
Cicero’s De Oratore
Cicero’s De Oratore EDUCATION:
rhetoric can and should be taught.
ETHICS: orator should be committed to the common good.
Cicero’s De Oratore
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus
(ca. 35-96 CE)
- Lived during the “imperial period” in Rome.
- Best known as a teacher rather than as a speaker. •Championed a return to the standards of Cicero.
- Promoted practices of imitation for rhetorical learning.
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus
Institutio Oratoria
Produced in Central Italy (Florence), 15th century (13 March 1477)
In Quintilianus’s Institutio Oratoria he expresses a ________ teaching method (Book II)
flexible
According to Quintilianus’s Institutio Oratoria _______ is the “queen” of the arts.
Rhetoric
According to Quintilianus’s Institutio Oratoria _______ cannot be taught through “rule books,” but must be cultivated as a flexible set of habits (383).
Rhetoric
According to Quintilianus’s Institutio Oratoria Rhetorical education is more about “_______” than training; Quintilian’s methods reflect this.
formation
Who’s Method includes:
- Find good teachers.
- Imitate good models.
- Engage in peer review.
Quintilianus
Institutio Oratoria
What was the method expressed by Quintilianus’s Institutio Oratoria?
- Find good teachers.
- Imitate good models.
- Engage in peer review.
Following is an example of whose Method?
“But that mischievous politeness, as it is now termed, which is shown by students in their praise of each other’s compositions, whatever be their merits, is not only unbecoming and theatrical, and foreign to strictly regulated schools, but even a most destructive enemy to study, for care and toil may well appear superfluous, when praise is ready for whatever pupils have produced.”
Quintilianus on Peer Review
When writing in rhetorical education Quintilian takes a _________________ from Socrates.
very different tack
When writing in rhetorical education ________ provides several reasons that writing is an important part of rhetorical education (404- 405).
Quintilian
When writing in rhetorical education Quintilian states ________ and _______ are important if one wishes to improve one’s writing (405).
Practice and Method
When was the Fall of Rome?
476 C.E.
Aristotle lived during what century?
4th century B.C.E.
Aristotle was likely the student of which thinker?
Plato
Which of the following is NOT an example of the 3 genres of rhetoric?
apologia
ceremonial
deliberative
forensic
apologia
DNA evidence is an example of _________ proof.
inartistic
Things said to be “The Will of God” are examples of _________ proof.
Artistic
Cicero’s family was apart of which class of Roman society?
equestrian
How did Cicero die?
assassination
438-336 B.C.E. thinker
Isocrates
What are the 5 cannons of rhetoric
- Invention
- Arrangment
- Style
- Memory
- Delivery
The art of persuasive speaking
Rhetoric
The primary responsibility of the orator, according to De Oratore, is to what?
The state
Plato was the teacher of who?
Aristotle
Socrates taught what thinker?
Plato
Who was taught by Aristotle?
Alexander the Great
Forcing the audience to infer their own conclusion (Aristotle)
Enthymeme
The following is an example of what?
“I was at the park with my dog and got ignored by Al. All must be a cat person”
Enthymeme
The following is an example of what?
“Beer before liquor never sicker”
Maxim
What form of reasoning used deductive reasoning
Syllogism
A proverb of old wisdom
Maxim
The following is an example of what?
“All men are mortal therefore Socrates is mortal”
Syllogism
“You were born human and falling in love gave you wings. “
Socrates in the Phaedrus
According to Quintilian having a ________ character is essential for orators.
Virtuous
Quintilian divides the term “rhetoric” into three parts:
- the art
- the artist
- the work
His ideal orator is a “good person speaking well.”
Quintilian
______ said “Bad men” do not deserve the name of “orator”; only good men can earn that title
Quintilian
Quintilian outlines three “offices”:
- informing
- moving
- pleasing
The questions you are supposed to ask and answer when trying a case.
Stasis Theory
Who advances stasis theory (i.e., the questions you are supposed to ask and answer when trying a case)?
Quintilian
Describes the difference between tropes and figures.
Quintilian
Quintilian’s RHETORIC:
the art of the good person speaking well
RHETORIC: the art of the good person speaking well
Quintilian
TRUTH: rhetoric deals not with certainty but what is “like truth” (395); _______ puts this knowledge on par with the knowledge produced by philosophers and scientists
Quintilian
LANGUAGE: opposed “excessive” language and advocated a return to Cicero’s standards; valued “perspicuity”
Quintilian
Quintilian’s METHOD:
good instruction is the key to the “good person speaking well”
EDUCATION: rhetoric can and should be taught; emphasized formation over training and student-teacher relationship.
Quintilian’s
Quintilian’s ETHICS:
the good speaker MUST be virtuous
Used to change the meaning of words (Etymology)
Tropes
The rearrangement of words/ language to become more powerful
Figures
From the Greek, “a turn”
Etymology
According to Quintilian an orator should focus two things:
- What is becoming
2. What is expedient
Promoted practices of imitation for rhetorical learning
taking someone else’s speech and reciting it
Quintilian
The following is an example of what:
“If you like it then you better put a ring on it”
Trope
Metaphors and allegory are example of _____
tropes
The following is an example of what:
I came, I saw, I conquered
Figure
The following is an example of what:
Ask not what your country can do for you, as what you can do for your country
Figure
