Unit 4: Area of Study 2 - What Influences Mental Wellbeing? Flashcards
Mental Health
Is a state of Wellbeing in which an individual realises their abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to their community
Mental Health as a Continuum (From Left to Right)
- Mentally Healthy (Left)
- Mental Health Problem (Middle)
- Mental Disorder (Right)
Mentally Healthy
Is when an individual is independent, function effectively within their everyday life and can cope with everyday demands of life without showing an excessive level of distress. Mentally healthy individuals still experience Stress, sadness and anger during their lives but can cope with these emotions and express them appropriately
Characteristics of a Mentally Healthy (List 3)
- High levels of functioning
- Able to cope with Stress
- Able to meet the demands of everyday life and be productive
- Displays resilience
- Maintains positive relationships with others
- Able to regulate emotions and express them appropriately
Mental Health Problem
Involves a degree of disturbance within an individual, which reduces their ability to function at an optimal level. Mental health problems can have a negative and considerable impact on an individual’s daily functioning. However, in comparison to a Mental Health Disorder, this impact is less profound and typically only experienced temporarily
Characteristics of a Mental Health Problem (List 2)
- Not functioning at an optimal level
- Temporary impact on Mental Health
- Experiencing amplified emotions and high levels of Stress
- Difficulty concentrating and experiencing irrational thought patterns
Mental Health Disorder
These cause severe and profound disturbances to an individual’s ability to function. When experiencing mental health disorders, individuals are not likely to be described as mentally healthy due to showing high levels of distress, being unable to independently complete tasks and meet the demands of their environment. Individuals with mental health disorders typically display behaviour which does not meet the norms of society and may be deemed as inappropriate.
Examples of Mental Health Disorder (List 2)
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Bipolar
- OCD
Internal Factors
Are factors that originate within a person and change over time. These factors have a profound impact on an individual’s placement on the Mental Health Continuum at different stages of their life. These factors are either Biological or Psychological.
External Factors
Are factors that influence an individual’s Mental Health and are directly linked to an individual’s environment. An individual can experience many fluctuations of their external factors due to the constant changes in their environment. These fluctuations may impact an individual’s position on the Mental Health Continuum, either moving closer towards or further away from being Mentally Healthy
Examples of Internal Factors that May Impact an Individual’s Mental Health (List 2)
- The amount of sleep they get
- Stress response
- Thought patterns
- Genetic Predisposition
Examples of External Factors that May Impact an Individual’s Mental Health (List 2)
- Loss of a significant relationship
- Level of education
- Experiencing difficult within certain environments, such as work or school
The Biopsychological Model
Is a framework that can be used to categorise the factors that contribute to the development and progression of mental illness. It proposes that Biological, Psychological and Social risk factors all interact and contribute to the development of a mental disorder, where biological risk factors relate specifically to the body
Characteristics of a Mentally Healthy Person
- High Level of Functioning
- High Level of Social Wellbeing
- High Level of Emotional Wellbeing
- Resilience to Life Stressors
High Level of Functioning
Is the individual’s ability to complete day-to-day tasks in an independent and effective way. It plays a role in increasing an individual’s sense of capability, prevents them from becoming easily overwhelmed, and allows them to function as a mentally healthy person within their environment
Examples of High Levels of Functioning Include the Ability to (List 3)
- Carry out everyday tasks, such as maintaining personal hygiene
- Communicate and maintain relationships with others
- Be productive in achieving tasks
- Set goals and take steps towards achieving them
- Be independent
- Adapt to changes in the environment
High Level of Social Wellbeing
Social Wellbeing involves forming strong relationships with others and communicating effectively. A Mentally Healthy person has a strong Social Wellbeing and is therefore able to develop a sense of connection to others. Social wellbeing is important, as interacting with others is essential in most environments, such as at school and at home. Strong social wellbeing helps individuals to have a level of confidence and create positive interactions in a social setting
Some Aspects of Strong Social Wellbeing Include (List 2)
- Having a strong support network
- Feeling valued by others
- An ability to form new relationships
- Having empathy for others
- An ability to effectively communicate
High Level of Emotional Wellbeing
Emotional Wellbeing involves appropriately controlling and expressing emotions. A Mentally Healthy person has strong Emotional Wellbeing as they can regulate their own emotions, express positive emotions at a suitable time and have empathy for others. Individuals with strong emotional wellbeing still experience negative emotions as they are an inevitable part of life. They are mentally healthy due to their ability to regulate these negative emotions and appropriately display them
Some Aspects of Strong Emotional Wellbeing Include (List 2)
- Being sensitive to the emotions of others
- Having a wide range of emotions
- Expressing emotions at an appropriate time
- Appropriately responding to and coping with stressors
Resilience to Stressors
Involves the ability to effectively adapt to Stressors that arise and recover from them. It is inevitable for stress to occur in everyday life. A Mentally Healthy person has the ability to overcome these stressors and recover from the challenges presented. This shows a high level of resilience as an individual is able to deal with difficulties presented and continue on with their lives without solely focusing on the cause of stress
High Levels of Resilience can Reflect and Lead to an Individual Having (List 2)
- High self-esteem
- More confidence in carrying out tasks
- Increased flexibility, therefore being able to cope with a range of stressors
Ethical Implications in Mental Health Study and Research
- Informed Consent
- The Use of Placebo Treatments
Informed Consent
Involves making participants aware of the procedures they are participating in. This includes a thorough understanding of the potential harms and risks they may face before agreeing to participate. Participants may become sensitive or distressed during the research, especially if they have a Mental Health Problem or Disorder. In order to protect the rights and safety of participants with mental health disorders, legal guardians are often required to give consent on their behalf. This ensures that participants are free from harm and participate willingly, as their guardian can understand the nature of the research and decide on their behalf whether it is safe for them to participate. Although the legal guardian can provide consent for the participant, the researcher still needs to ensure that the participant understands the nature, purpose and risks of the study to the best of their ability
The Use of Placebo Treatments
Placebo Treatments are commonly used in Mental Health Research as they are able to test the effectiveness of new medications. This is given through an experimental procedure in which an Experimental Group receives the actual treatment being tested and the Control Group receives a Placebo. As Placebos contain no active treatment, they can act as a control in determining the effectiveness of a new treatment or medication. The participants’ responses to Placebos provides a baseline for comparison in evaluating active treatments. In Mental Health Research, this is important as it indicates whether results are due to the treatment being administered, or to the Placebo effect
Negative Ethical Implications of Placebo Use in Mental Health Research
Sometimes deception needs to be used in research. This can result in the participants being unaware of the full details of the experiment, inhibiting their ability to give Informed Consent. Due to the use of Deception, it is extremely important that the researcher uses thorough Debriefing at the end of a study
Negative Effects on Participants by the Use of Placebo in Mental Health Research (List 1)
- Prolonging and preventing recovery from a mental health disorder due to holding participants back from accessing other treatments
- The use of deception on individuals who are already vulnerable due to a mental health disorder may make their sense of distress worse, potentially leading to them feeling betrayed, or creating a sense of paranoia
Mental Disorder
Is a mental health state that involves a
combination of
thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours
which are usually associated with significant personal
distress and impairs the ability to function effectively
in everyday life
The 4P Factor Model
Is a model that categorises the different factors that contribute to the development and progression of a mental health disorder as either Predisposing, Precipitating or Perpetuating Risk Factors or Protective Factors.
Risk Factor
Is any
characteristic or event that increases the likelihood that a Mental Disorder will increase in severity when it occurs or will hinder the recovery from a Disorder. This may be a Biological, Psychological or Social factor
Protective Factor
Is any characteristic or event that reduces the likelihood of the occurrence or
recurrence of a Mental Disorder, either on its own or when Risk Factors are present
The 4 Risk and Protective Factors
- Predisposing Risk Factors
- Precipitating Risk Factors
- Perpetuating Risk Factors
- Protective Factors
Predisposing Risk Factors
Are factors that increase the likelihood of developing a Mental Health Disorder
Example of a Predisposing Risk Factor
Genetic Vulnerability
Precipitating Risk Factors
Are Stimuli or events that a person faces in their life that both increase the chance of them developing a Mental Health Disorder and directly lead to its occurrence.
Differences Between Predisposing and Precipitating Risk Factors
A Predisposing Risk Factor only increases the chances of developing a Mental Health Disorder, but does not at any stage directly lead to its occurrence. Precipitating risk factors explicitly causes Mental Health Disorders
Example of a Precipitating Risk Factor
The loss of a significant relationship
Perpetuating Risk Factors
Are Stimuli or events that a person faces in their life that limit their ability to recover from a Mental Health Disorder
Example of a Perpetuating Risk Factor
A person could have a poor response to medication that was prescribed to them by a Doctor or due to genetic factors. As a result, the medication does not work effectively for them, and they are not able to recover from a Mental Health Disorder as planned
Protective Risk Factors
Are characteristics in a person’s life that enable them to maintain Mental Health, and hence avoid developing a Mental Health Disorder. Protective factors can prevent people from developing a Mental Disorder, or prevent the re-occurrence of a Mental Disorder
Example of a Protective Risk Factor
If somebody has adequate sleep, they are more likely to have the Biological resources to build resilience and avoid developing a Mental Health Disorder
Biological Risk Factors
- Genetic Vulnerability
- Poor response to medication due to Genetic Factors
- Poor Sleep
- Substance Use
Genetic Vulnerability
Is how a person’s Biological characteristics have the ability to make them more likely to develop a Mental Health Disorder. This can include a family history of Mental Health Disorders, which consequently means that a person has a higher chance of developing a Mental Health Disorder than if there was no history of Mental Health Disorders in the family
Poor Response to Medication Due to Genetic Factors
The effectiveness of a particular medication prescribed by a Doctor relies on the Biological condition of the person who is taking the medication. This is because the medication has an active ingredient that reacts in different ways depending on the individual consuming it. While medication is widely effective in the population, there are some people who have poor response to medication if their Biology is resistant to the effect of particular drugs
Poor Sleep
Is a common consequence of the struggles and demands of everyday life. Poor sleep has Biological consequences that can contribute to the development of Mental Health Disorders
Biological Consequences of Sleep Deprivation that can Lead to the Development of a Mental Health Disorder Include (List 2)
- An inability to restore adequate Neurotransmitter levels
- An inability to maintain neural pathways through lack of stimulation
- Greater difficulty with learning
Inadequate memory consolidation - An inability to recover from general fatigue
Substance Use
Is he use of drugs, either legal or illegal. When people become Biologically dependent on a particular substance, it compromises their ability to function in everyday life without using that drug. Therefore, when people try to stop using a drug or have to function in a context where they cannot consume the drug, they often cannot deal with the demands of everyday life. This therefore may lead to the development of Mental Health Disorders
Legal Substances that can Increase the Likelihood of Developing a Mental Health Disorder Include (List 3)
- Alcohol
- Tobacco
- Sleep medications
- Barbiturates
- Benzodiazepines
- Codeine
- Morphine
- Methadone
Illegal Substances that can Increase the Likelihood of Developing a Mental Health Disorder Include (List 3)
- Marijuana
- Heroin
- Speed
- Cocaine
- LSD
- Ecstasy
Genetic Vulnerability and the 4P Model
Genetic Vulnerability is often considered a Predisposing Risk Factor. If somebody has a Genetic Vulnerability to a specific Mental Health Disorder, they are not guaranteed to develop that Mental Health Disorder themselves. Rather, it increases their susceptibility to developing this Mental Health Disorder
Poor Response to Medication Due to Genetic Factors and the 4P Model
Poor Response to Medication is often considered to be a Perpetuating Risk Factor. Taking medication is often part of the process of recovering from a Mental Health Disorder. A Doctor may prescribe medication to someone as it will address the symptoms that the person is experiencing and as a result manage their Mental Health. Therefore, if a person experiences a poor response to a medication that was prescribed to manage their Mental Health Disorder, it inhibits their recovery and acts as a Perpetuating Risk Factor
Poor Sleep and the 4P Model
Poor Sleep is often considered a Precipitating Risk Factor. When someone experiences poor sleep, they no longer have the Biological resources to cope with the pressures of everyday life. This increases a person’s likelihood of developing a Mental Health Disorder as they are more vulnerable to being unable to function in society without these biological resources. It is specifically poor sleep that causes this vulnerability, then it can also act as the specific ‘trigger’ to the onset of a Mental Health Disorder
Substance Use and the 4P Model
In terms of the Four P model, Substance Use can often be considered to be a Precipitating Risk Factor. The Biological dependence on a particular substance can increase someone’s likelihood of developing a Mental Health Disorder. When that person attempts to stop using the drug, perhaps because they can no longer financially afford the habit or because the situation they are in (such as work or school) does not allow for it, that person may struggle to function effectively in society. If substance use is specifically the cause of this Biological Vulnerability, then it also directly leads to the occurrence of a Mental Health Disorder
Psychological Risk Factors
- Rumination
- Impaired Reasoning and Memory
- Stress
- Poor Self-Efficacy
Rumination
involves repeatedly thinking negative emotional thoughts and remembering unfavourable experiences. Instead of being able to overcome a negative experience, ruminating means that an individual will keep thinking about a negative situation until it becomes overwhelming and distressing. It is the cognition involved in developing the negative thought processes of Rumination that make it a Psychological Risk Factor for developing a Mental Health Disorder
Rumination and the 4P Model
Rumination is often a Perpetuating Risk Factor and is Perpetuating when it compromises an individual’s ability to overcome distressing thoughts and experiences. As a result, Rumination also limits an individual’s ability to overcome symptoms of Mental Illness and ultimately inhibits a person’s ability to recover from a Mental Health Disorder. Rumination can also be Predisposing and Precipitating depending on the individual’s circumstance
Impaired Reasoning and Memory
Involves not being able to make rational decisions or remember a situation accurately. Impaired reasoning and memory is caused by cognitive bias, which is when an individual’s subjective beliefs distort their ability to process and accurately recall the objective truth of an experience
Impaired Reasoning and Memory and the 4P Model
Impaired reasoning and memory can act as a Perpetuating Risk Factor. Often, overcoming the symptoms of a Mental Health Disorder requires the ability to think rationally. If an individual experiences impaired reasoning and memory, they may instead not believe that seeing a Psychologist will help them recover from a Mental Illness. Impaired reasoning and memory, therefore, acts as a Perpetuating Risk Factor due to limiting an individual’s ability to think rationally, which is required to overcome the symptoms of mental illness. Furthermore, impaired reasoning and memory may act as predisposing risk factors. Having memory impairments such as long-term memory loss for example may increase a person’s susceptibility to developing a Mental Health Disorder if the frustrations this brings significantly impacts on their lifestyle. On the other hand, Impaired Reasoning and Memory may act as Precipitating Risk Factors if a person makes consistent and systematic errors of judgement
Stress
Involves Psychological processes, such as an individual’s subjective appraisal of a Stressor. This can result in the individual not coping and consequently contribute to Mental Illness. An individual’s appraisal of a Stressor is Psychological given that it involves Cognitive Processes. If an individual appraises a Stimulus to exceed their ability to cope they will consequently experience a stress response. This, in turn, increases their risk of developing a Mental Health Disorder
Stress and the 4P Model
Stress is also often considered to be a Precipitating, Predisposing and/or a Perpetuating Risk Factor, depending on the situation. For example, Stress can be Precipitating if an individual regularly experiences Stress and uses poor coping strategies. This may result in the individual becoming less equipped to deal with the pressures of everyday life and their Stress could Accumulate to an extent that it is no longer manageable, leading to the symptoms of, or even directly resulting in a Mental Health Disorder. Stress can also result in anxious thought patterns. These anxious thought patterns can disrupt an individual’s ability to process information effectively and operate at a High Level of Functioning, therefore increasing the likelihood of contributing to or maintaining Mental Health Disorders
Poor Self-Efficacy
Occurs when an individual does not believe in their capacity to complete a task or meet their goals. Poor Self-Efficacy is a Psychological Risk Factor because it involves aspects of Cognitive Functioning such as thought patterns. An individual with Poor Self-Efficacy will have negative thought patterns that discourage them from competing tasks. This limits an individual’s ability to cope with the demands of everyday life, therefore contributing to the development of a Mental Health Disorder.
Poor-Self Efficacy and the 4P Model
In terms of the Four P model, Poor Self-Efficacy is often also considered to be a Predisposing Risk Factor. A person who has Low Self-Efficacy will have a consistent lack of confidence in their abilities. It can, therefore, reduce the ability to complete daily tasks such as going to school or work as a lack of confidence may prevent them from functioning effectively. Depending on the situation, Self-Efficacy can also be a Precipitating Risk Factor if a specific event occurs that challenges an individual’s ability to cope, then Poor Self-Efficacy could be the direct cause of the development of a Mental Health Disorder. It could also be considered a Perpetuating Risk Factor if an individual is trying strategies to overcome a Mental Health Disorder, then Poor Self-Efficacy can limit their capacity to complete these strategies and recover
Social Risk Factors
Are from an individual’s interactions with their external environment, such as their relationships with their family and friends. When there are disruptions to these relationships, it can increase an individual’s risk of developing a Mental Illness
Types of Social Risk Factors
- Disorganised Attachment
- Loss of a Significant Relationship
- Stigma as a barrier to accessing treatment
Disorganised Attachment
Involves an infant displaying inconsistent behaviour in the presence of their primary care-giver when not provided with consistent or adequate care. The main caregiver does not need to be the infant’s Biological parent. Inconsistent support can cause the infant to believe they are unable to rely on important people in their lives, leading to the development of trust issues later in life. As an adult, this infant may experience difficulty forming and maintaining relationships with others as a result
Disorganised Attachment and the 4P Model
In terms of the 4 P model, Disorganised Attachment is often a Predisposing Risk Factor. Disorganised attachment is Predisposing when the effects of Disorganised Attachment, such as finding it difficult to trust others, continue to affect an individual throughout their life. This continued impact can increase their likelihood developing a Mental Health Disorder, but does not directly contribute to its onset. Disorganised Attachment can also be Precipitating and Perpetuating depending on the individual’s circumstance
Loss of a Significant Relationship
The Loss of a Significant Relationship is where an individual loses a relationship that is important to them. This does not only apply to romantic relationships but also to friendships, relationships between family members or relationships with a pet
The Loss of a Significant Relationship and the 4P Model
The Loss of a Significant Relationship is often a Precipitating Risk Factor. It acts as a specific event that may cause the onset of a Mental Illness. When somebody loses a significant relationship, they may experience reduced resilience and therefore become more vulnerable in their state of emotional distress to developing a Mental Illness. In this way, the loss of a significant relationship both increases susceptibility and directly contributes to the occurrence of a Mental Health Disorder. The loss of a significant relationship can also be a Predisposing or Perpetuating Risk Factor depending on the individual’s circumstance.
Stigma as a Barrier to Accessing Treatment (Self Stigma)
Is when an individual feels ashamed when they perceive that society has a negative view of the particular characteristic that distinguishes them from other people. Although stigma can be experienced at a psychological level when an individual internalises these views, it is a social risk factor because it is caused by the views that society holds, whether these are real or imagined by the person experiencing stigma. These views may negatively affect the relationship and interactions people with a mental disorder have with others, causing feelings of isolation and social exclusion. Importantly, when someone with a mental disorder feels ashamed, they are unlikely to seek the help they need to overcome their condition
Examples of Misconceived Stigmas (List 2)
- Having a mental illness is a sign of weakness
- Men need to be strong and should not have to seek help when experiencing mental illness
- Women are too emotional and lack resilience
- Having a mental illness means that you are always unstable and are unable to think logically
People with a mental illness should not be trusted
Stigma as a Barrier to Accessing Treatment and the 4P Model
Stigma is a Perpetuating Risk Factor and acts as a barrier to accessing treatment. For example, one who is mentally ill may feel too embarrassed to reach out for help or tell people what they are experiencing due to the perceived societal view that mental illness is a sign of weakness or instability. Therefore, the individual will not receive the treatment and support they need to recover from their symptoms, inhibiting their recovery and Perpetuating their Mental Illness
Stigma as a Barrier to Accessing Treatment (Social Stigma)
Stigma can also perpetuate Mental Health Disorders in other ways. Mentally ill people can be excluded from certain jobs, medical appointments or sports due to the Stigma held by society. Sometimes the sufferer may believe they will be excluded, discouraging them from seeking such opportunities in the first place. This perpetuates their Mental Illness, making the effects worse on the individual
Cumulative Risk
Is when the Predisposing, Precipitating and Perpetuating Risk Factors has a greater effect on Mental Health than any individual alone. When an individual experiences all of these risk factors, they can combine and interact in such a way hat intensifies the risk of developing a Mental Health Disorder
Cumulative Risk: Addictive Models
Proposes that as the number of Risk Factors increases, there is also a corresponding increase in the likelihood of developing a Mental Disorder. The relationship between risk factors and Mental Disorder therefore tends to be linear. Similarly, the lower the number of Risk Factors, the lower the likelihood of developing a Disorder
Cumulative Risk: Threshold Models
Proposes that the risk of developing
a Mental Disorder is far more likely after exposure
to a certain number of concurrent and simultaneously
occurring Risk Factors and that the risk is in excess of
the total of their separate effects. According to these
models, risk factors have a multiplier effect as they
accumulate, so there is a multiplicative relationship
rather than additive relationship among the Risk Factors
Stress
Is a state of Physiological and Psychological arousal produced by Internal or External Stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging
Anxiety
Is a state of arousal involving feelings of apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen
Phobia
Is characterised by an excessive or unreasonable fear of a particular object or situation
Common Characteristics of Stress (List 2)
- The Sympathetic Nervous System becomes dominant
- The response is to a known Stimulus
- Feelings can be either positive or negative apprehension
- Can be either Eustress or Distress
- Some Stress can be adaptive
- It may contribute to the development of progression of Mental Health Disorders
Common Characteristics of Anxiety (List 2)
- The Sympathetic Nervous System becomes dominant
- The response might be to an unknown Stimulus or generalised
- There are feelings o apprehension, uneasiness or worry
- There is only Distress
- Some Anxiety can be adaptive
- It may contribute to the development or the progression of a Mental Health Disorder
Common Characteristics of a Specific Phobia (List 2)
- The Sympathetic Nervous System becomes dominant
- The response is to a known Stimulus
- The feeling of fear is predominant
- There is only Distress
- The Phobia is maladaptive
- It Is a diagnosed Mental Health Disorder
Mental Health Continuum for Stress (From Left to Right)
- Slightly Stressed (Left)
- Moderately Stressed (Middle)
- Distressed (Right)
Mental Health Continuum for Anxiety (From Left to Right)
- Slightly Anxious (Left)
- Moderately Anxious (Middle)
- Extremely Anxious (Right)
Mental Health Continuum for Phobia’s (From Left to Right)
- Slightly Fearful (Left)
- Moderately Fearful (Middle)
- Excessively Fearful (Right)
Biological Factors that Contribute to the Development of a Specific Phobia
- GABA Dysfunction
- The Role of Stress Response
- Long-Term Potentiation
GABA Dysfunction
GABA Dysfunction is the insufficient Neural Transmission of GABA. This can be due to a low level of production of GABA, or an insufficient reception or transmission of it across the Synapse. There is a correlation between GABA dysfunction and the development of Anxiety Disorders. GABA Dysfunction may cause someone’s Fight-Flight-Freeze or Anxiety Response to be activated more easily than someone with adequate GABA levels. Therefore, the Stress Response is more easily triggered by certain Stimuli. Recurrent Stress responses to specific Stimuli can lead to the development of a Phobia
Role of the Stress Response
The Biological Stress Response involves the activation of the Autonomic Nervous System responses, such as the Fight-Flight-Freeze response. A person afraid of a certain Stimulus sees that Stimulus as threatening in some way, and this leads to the Biological Stress Response. This is a Biological contributing factor to Phobia, as the Physiological experience of fear becomes associated with a certain Stimulus
Long-Term Potentiation
This is a form of Neural Plasticity that causes a strengthening of Neural connections that are repeatedly co-activated. This contributes to the development of Phobias by strengthening the association between Neural signals involved in perceiving a Stimulus, and Neural signals involved in activating the fear response. Through their repeated co-activation, the signals involved in perceiving a Phobic Stimulus more readily trigger the activation of the Neural signals responsible for the Fear Response
Psychological Factors that Contribute to the Development of a Specific Phobia
- Behavioural Model: Precipitation by Classical Conditioning
- Behavioural Model: Perpetuation by Operant Conditioning
- Cognitive Model: Memory Bias
- Cognitive Model: Catastrophic Thinking
Precipitation by Classical Conditioning
It can contribute to the development of phobias by increasing susceptibility to and contributing to their occurrence. This is because Phobias can be learned through classical conditioning. In terms of Classical Conditioning, what becomes a Phobic Stimulus would start out as the Neutral Stimulus. Through repeated association with an Unconditioned Stimulus that naturally induces fear, the Neutral Stimulus becomes the Conditioned Stimulus or Phobic Stimulus, producing the Conditioned Response or Phobic Response. In this way, a Phobic Response can be acquired through the processes of Classical Conditioning
Perpetuation by Operant Conditioning
The role of Operant Conditioning in Phobias can be thought about largely in terms of the consequence stage. A person with a Phobia will generally avoid contact with their Phobic Stimulus at all costs. By avoiding confrontation with the Phobic Stimulus, a person is negatively reinforced through this avoidance in not having to deal with their fear response. Over time, this Reinforcement strengthens or maintains the Phobic Response, making avoidant behaviours more likely to be repeated, and preventing recovery through this cycle
Memory Bias
Is a kind of Cognitive Bias caused by inaccurate or exaggerated memory. As Phobias are often caused by traumatic events, people may remember the Trauma as extremely significant or harmful, and this impacts their present Cognitions about related Stimuli
Catastrophic Thinking
Is a kind of Cognitive Bias in which a Stimulus or event is predicted to be far worse than it is. A person will often imagine the worst case scenario possible when imagining an interaction with their Phobic Stimulus. This contributes to Phobia, making Stimuli seem worthy of extreme Fear and Anxiety
Social Factors that Contribute to the Development of a Specific Phobia
- Specific Environmental Triggers
- Stigma Around Seeking Treatment
Specific Environmental Triggers
Are Stimuli or experiences in a person’s environment that prompt an extreme Stress Response, leading to the development of a Phobia. Types of environmental triggers are;
- Direct confrontation with a Traumatic Stimulus or event
- Observing another person having a direct confrontation with a Traumatic Stimulus or event
- Learning about a potentially dangerous or Traumatic Stimulus or event indirectly
Stigma Around Seeking Treatment
Leaving one’s Phobia untreated also contributes to the development and maintenance of specific Phobia. Often, people will not seek help due to embarrassment, worry or fear. Stigma Around Seeking Treatment refers to the sense of shame a person might feel about getting professional help for their Phobia. They might feel as though their Phobia is too embarrassing or insignificant to seek professional help, or as though they are unusual and isolated from society in some way for doing so. As Phobias are based on at least somewhat irrational fears, seeking help can be very difficult
Biological Interventions for Treating Phobias
- Benzodiazepines
- Relaxation Techniques: Breathing Retraining and Exercise
The Use of Benzodiazepines for Treating Phobias
Benzodiazepines are a type of short-acting, anti-anxiety medication that act in response to control the over-excitation of neural pathways characteristic of a Phobic Fear Response. They work by increasing the inhibitory role of GABA at the Synapse. This helps to temporarily hinder the effects of GABA Dysfunction
Agonists
Are drugs that imitate Neurotransmitter and bind to and activate the Receptor Site of a Neuron
Benzodiazepines as an Agonist
Benzodiazepines are Agonists because when they bind to a GABA Receptor Site, they increase the efficiency of the Inhibitory effects of GABA. This is done through the Lock-and-Key Process. This will then reduce the fear response and relieve the Anxiety that it causes.
Breathing Retraining
: Is a method that is used to teach someone with a specific Phobia how to control their breathing when in the presence of their Phobic Stimulus. When someone with Specific Phobia is facing their Phobic Stimulus, they often experience fast, shallow breathing. This can lead to Hyperventilation, the engagement of other Sympathetic Nervous System responses, and in turn, increased Anxiety
Exercise as a Relaxation Technique (List 2)
Exercise acts as a Relaxation Technique as:
- Some exercise uses up Hormones like Cortisol and Adrenaline that contribute to Stress and Anxiety
- Exercise can produce Endorphins in the Brain to enhance Mental Wellbeing
- Exercise can have a Meditative Effect which induces calmness and relaxation
- High intensity exercise can produce Cortisol, which trains the body to deal with Anxiety in a healthy way
Psychological Interventions for Treating Phobias
- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
- Systematic Desensitisation
Systematic Desensitisation
Is a therapy technique used to overcome a Phobia, involving a patient being exposed incrementally to increasingly Anxiety-inducing Stimuli, combined with the use of relaxation techniques. Systematic Desensitisation operates on the principles of Classical Conditioning, aiming to decondition the association between the Phobic Stimulus and fear, by associating the Phobic Stimulus instead with relaxation
Social Interventions for Treating Phobias
- Psychoeducation for Families and Supporters:
- Challenging Unrealistic or Anxious Thoughts
- Not Encouraging Avoidant Behaviours
Psychoeducation for Families and Supporters
Involves teaching them about the ways to manage and deal with a person’s Phobia. It also involves providing a more general education about the nature of Phobia to increase families’ and supporters’ understanding of the Mental Health Disorder. This can be beneficial to both the person with the Phobia and their family and supporters.
Challenging Unrealistic or Anxious Thoughts
A person with a Phobia often has unrealistic and anxious thoughts about their Phobic Stimulus. Family and supporters are encouraged to actively challenge these thoughts in order to help a person with Phobia to understand that some Cognitive Components of their fears are potentially unfounded and irrational. This should be done in a supportive, non-judgmental fashion. This can help the person recognise the unhealthy thoughts
Not Encouraging Avoidant Behaviours
Phobias cannot be solved through avoidant behaviours. While avoidant coping strategies might be useful for relieving less severe forms of Stress, they do not provide long-term solutions for Phobias. This is because Phobias involve a deeply ingrained fear response that cannot be eliminated entirely with temporary fixes. As such, families and supporter are taught that they should not encourage avoidant behaviours, as they do not solve and only perpetuate maintain the Phobic Anxiety
Resilience
Is the ability to successfully cope with adversity and to ‘bounce back’ and restore positive functioning
Characteristics of Resilience (List 6)
- The ability to achieve positive results in adverse situations
- The ability to function competently in situations of
Acute or Chronic Stress - The ability to recover from Trauma
- High Self-Esteem
- High Self-Efficacy
- A positive outlook in bad times as well as good
- Flexibility
- Good emotional control and regulation
- Good interpersonal relationships and social support
systems - The ability to interpret Stressors in appropriate ways
- The ability to make realistic plans and take steps to carry them out
- Skills in communication and problem solving
Ways to Build Resilience (List 5)
- Make connections
- Avoid seeking crises as insurmountable problems
- Accept that change is a part of living
- Move toward your goals
- Take decisive actions
- Look for opportunities for self-discovery
- Nurture a positive view of yourself
- Keep things in perspective
- Maintain a hopeful outlook
- Take care of yourself
Biological Protective Factors of Resilience
- Adequate diet
- Adequate sleep
Adequate Diet
This greatly improves a person’s physical health, and thereby mental health as well. Eating foods full of nutrients and high in energy equips a person with the ability to function day to day and maintain a more stable mood, as well as reducing their likelihood of getting sick. Besides eating foods high in nutrients and energy, it is important to consume a variety of foods that meet all the different needs of the body. This includes providing the body with the right protein and vitamin levels, as well as drinking the recommended amount of water each day
Adequate Sleep
Getting the recommended amount of sleep is vital for both physical and mental health. Receiving adequate sleep, similar to diet, equips a person with the ability to function effectively, maintain a steady mood and reduces their likelihood of sickness. This in turn increases Resilience, as each of these tools allow a person to better respond to and overcome Stressors
Psychological Protective Factors of Resilience
Cognitive Behavioural Strategies
Cognitive Behavioural Strategies and Resilience
The use of Cognitive and Behavioural Strategies is one important Psychological Protective Factor which increases Resilience levels. This factor draws from the theory of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, emphasising the interrelationship between cognition and behaviour. This relationship suggests that behaviours and thoughts interact and influence each other. These include strategies of avoiding certain thought patterns such as catastrophizing. To increase Resilience, efforts should be taken to improve cognition by replacing unhealthy thoughts with more healthy ones
Social Protective Factors of Resilience
- Family
- Friends
- The Community
Benefits from Family in Building Resilience (List 3)
- Provide unconditional love when you make a mistake
- Can engage in regular catch ups to vent emotions and share life details
- Provide familiar perspectives to go back to in times of uncertainty
- Give support in difficult times, both emotionally and practically
- Provide a sense of belonging to a relatively static and familiar group
Give encouragement to change and avoid unhealthy behaviours
Benefits from Friends in Building Resilience (List 3)
- Provide fun and energizing experiences
- Give levels of intimacy and closeness that a person might not have with their family
- Provide support in difficult times
- Help reduce Stress and increase happiness
- Give you a sense of belonging and a sense of purpose
Benefits from the Community in Building Resilience (List 3)
- Provide opportunities for interaction and bonding
- Provide a sense of belonging and connectedness to a wider circle
- Give a sense of moral accomplishment that is achieved in collaborative community projects
- Provide opportunities for personal growth and learning
- Provide facilities and service for support
The Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change
Is a model which assesses an individual’s readiness to change by looking at the different stages of the model and how an individual may progress through them as they move towards a healthier behaviour
Stages of the Transtheoretical Model
- Pre-contemplation Stage
- Contemplation Stage
- Preparation Stage
- Action Stage
- Maintenance Stage
Pre-contemplation Stage
Is when the individua is not yet ready for change. They believe that the behaviour is not yet problematic and they lack the motivation for change and that they are unable to change the behaviour
Contemplation Stage
Is when the individual is aware that the behaviour is problematic and they are actively thinking about taking steps towards changing the behaviour within the next 6 months. However, they are not currently taking active steps to change the behaviour
Preparation Stage
I when the individual takes steps towards changing their behaviour within the next 30 days. The individual has high motivation to change, but may have low confidence that they will succeed
Action Stage
Is when the individual takes active steps to change their behaviour and the behaviour change has lasted less than 6 months. Social support is common at this stage
Maintenance Stage
Is when the behaviour change has been consistent for at least 6 months. The individual is active in taking measures to avoid Relapse
Relapse
Is a temporary step back to a previous Stage. This can occur at any Stage
Strengths of the Transtheoretical Model of Behavioural Change (List 2)
- It helps to account for fluctuations and Relapses in behaviour change and acknowledges that these can still lead to change in the long-term
- It provides a broad accounts of the processes that are involved in behaviour change
- It acknowledges that change occurs gradually
Limitations of the Transtheoretical Model of Behavioural Change (List 2)
- Time periods are not always consistent as outlined in the model
- There is limited research on the Psychological Processes that are involved in the transitions between stages, as well as what motivates these transitions
- The order of the stages in this model has been questioned in terms of their accuracy and ability to fully cover all necessary actions of behaviour change
