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Year 12 VCE Psychology > Unit 3: Area of Study 2 - How do People Learn and Remember? > Flashcards

Unit 3: Area of Study 2 - How do People Learn and Remember? Flashcards

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1
Q

Neural Plasticity

A

Is the ability of the Brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan

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2
Q

Synaptic Plasticity

A

Is the ability of the Synapse to change over time

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3
Q

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A

Is the long-lasting strengthening of Synaptic Connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective Synaptic Transmission

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4
Q

Long-Term Depression (LTD)

A

Is the long-lasting decrease in the strength of Synaptic Transmission

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5
Q

Neurohormones

A

Are chemical messengers that are manufactured by Neurons and released from Axon Terminals

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6
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Is a chemical substance that is made by a Neuron that carries a message to other Neurons or Cells in Muscles, Organs or other Tissue

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7
Q

The Role of Glutamate in Synaptic Plasticity

A

Glutamate promotes the growth and strengthening of Synaptic Connections between Neurons within a Neural Pathway that later on represents the memory of what has been learnt

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8
Q

Consolidation

A

Is the Biological process of making a newly formed memory stale and enduring after learning

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9
Q

The Role of Adrenaline in Learning and Memory

A

Adrenaline can enhance the Consolidation of Long-Term Memories of emotionally arousing experiences, meaning that these types of events are more likely to be remembered

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10
Q

The Role of GABA in Neural Plasticity

A

GABA is the primary inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Central Nervous System. One of its functions is to fine-tune Neurotransmission in the Brain. This in turn allows Neurotransmission to be at the best possible level

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11
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Is a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two or more different Stimuli

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12
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

Is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response

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13
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

Is the response that occurs automatically when the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented

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14
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

Is any Stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response

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15
Q

Conditioned Stimulus

A

Is the Stimulus that is neutral at the start of the Conditioning Process by eventually produces a very similar response to that caused by the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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16
Q

Conditioned Response

A

Is the learned response that is produced by the Conditioned Stimulus

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17
Q

Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model

A
  • Phase 1: Before Conditioning
  • Phase 2: During Conditioning
  • Phase 3: After Conditioning
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18
Q

Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 1

A

The Neutral Stimulus produces no relevant response and the Unconditioned Stimulus produces the Unconditioned Response

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19
Q

Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 2

A

The Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus to produce the Unconditioned Response

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20
Q

Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 3

A

The Neutral Stimulus becomes a Conditioned Stimulus and the Conditioned Stimulus produces a Conditioned Response, which is usually very similar to the previously Unconditioned Response

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21
Q

Stimulus Generalisation

A

Is the tendency for another Stimulus that is similar to the original Conditioned Stimulus to produce a response that is similar, but not identical to the Conditioned Response

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22
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

Occurs when a person or animal responds to only the Conditioned Stimulus, but not to any other Stimulus that is similar to the Conditioned Stimulus

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23
Q

Extinction

A

Is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a Conditioned Response that occurs when the Unconditioned Stimulus is no longer presented

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24
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

Is the reappearance of a Conditioned Response when the Conditioned Stimulus is presented, following a rest period after the Conditioned Response appears to have been extinguished

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25
Q

Summary of the Little Albert Experiment

A

The 9-month-old boy was exposed to Stimuli and observed, but showed no fear. He was exposed to a white rat and showed no fear but when the rat was presented again and Watson hit a metal pipe with a hammer, Albert cried. After the white rate was paired with the loud noise, Albert cried every time he saw the white rat

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26
Q

Ethical Considerations in the Little Albert Experiment (List 2)

A
  • Informed consent may not have been obtained by Albert’s mother
  • Withdrawal rights may not have been presented to Albert’s mother
  • Albert was experiencing severe distress but yet the experiment was not stopped
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27
Q

Operant Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model

A
  • Antecedent
  • Behaviour
  • Consequence
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28
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Is a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

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29
Q

Antecedent

A

Is a Stimulus that comes before a specific behaviour

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30
Q

Behaviour

A

Is the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the Antecedent Stimulus

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31
Q

Consequence

A

Is the environmental event that occurs immediately after the Behaviour

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32
Q

Observational Learning

A

Occurs when someone uses observation of a person’s actions, and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions

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33
Q

Social Learning

A

Refers to how the environment in which the learning occurs is important

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34
Q

Observational Learning Processes

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Reproduction
  • Motivation
  • Reinforcement
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35
Q

Attention

A

Is the first step in Observational Learning. It is the process that involves closely watching a model’s behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour

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36
Q

Retention

A

Is the second step in Observational Learning. It involves the storage of the observed behaviour so the behaviour may be reproduced when needed

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37
Q

Reproduction

A

Is the third step in Observational Learning. It is the imitation of the behaviour that has already been attended to and retained in memory

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38
Q

Motivation

A

It is the fourth step in Observational Learning. It refers to how the learner must be motivated to reproduce the observed behaviour

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39
Q

Reinforcement (Observational Learning)

A

It is the fifth step in Observational Learning. Reinforcement influences the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of Reproduction

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40
Q

Reinforcement

A

It is when something is given to an individual to either strengthen their response to a behaviour or eliminate it completely

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41
Q

Types of Reinforcement

A
  • Positive Reinforcement

- Negative Reinforcement

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42
Q

Positive Reinforcer

A

Is a Stimulus that is given to an individual that increases the likelihood of a desired
response occurs by providing a rewarding consequence

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43
Q

Negative Reinforcer

A

Is any unpleasant
Stimulus that, when removed increases the likelihood of a specific
response occurring

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44
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Involves giving a Positive Reinforcer after the desired response has been made

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45
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Involves the removal of an unpleasant Stimulus, increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated, thereby strengthening the response

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46
Q

Memory

A

Is the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

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47
Q

Fundamental Processes for Memory

A
  • Encoding
  • Storage
  • Retrieval
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48
Q

Encoding

A

Is the conversion of incoming into a usable form so that it can be stored in memory

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49
Q

Storage

A

Is the retention of the Encoded information over time for future use

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50
Q

Retrieval

A

Is the recovery of stored information and bringing it into Conscious Awareness for use

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51
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory

A

Is a model that represents Memory as consisting of 3 separate components

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52
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Structural Features

A

Are the permanent features of Memory that do not vary from one situation to another

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53
Q

Structural Features of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory

A
  • Sensory Memory
  • Short-Term Memory (STM)
  • Long-Term (LTM)
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54
Q

Process of Memory

A
  1. Sensory Information from the External Environment enters Sensory Memory. If it is not attended to, it is lost from Memory
  2. If the Sensory Information is attended to, it gets transferred to Short-Term Memory where it gets rehearsed. It it is not rehearsed, it is lost from Short-Term Memory
  3. If the Sensory Information is rehearsed in Short-Term Memory, it gets encoded into Long-Term Memory where some information may be lost over time.
  4. If a person wants to retrieve the stored information, it gets brought from Long-Term Memory back into Short-Term Memory
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55
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Is the entry point of Memory in which incoming Sensory Stimuli are retained in their original form. Sensory Information remains in Sensory Memory just long enough for us to attend to and select the information to be transferred to Short-Term Memory for processing

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56
Q

Capacity of Sensory Memory

A

Vast, potentially unlimited

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57
Q

Duration of Sensory Memory

A

About 0.2-4 seconds

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58
Q

Types of Sensory Memory

A
  • Iconic Memory

- Echoic Memory

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59
Q

Iconic Memory

A

Is Visual Sensory Memory for incoming visual information that stores Visual images in their Sensory Form for about 1/3 of a second

60
Q

Echoic Memory

A

Is Auditory Sensory Memory that stores sounds in their original form

61
Q

Short-Term Memory (STM)

A

Is a Memory System that stores information for a relatively short period and maintains the information in conscious awareness for immediate use

62
Q

Capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)

A

7 ± 2 pieces of information

63
Q

Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)

A

About 18-20 seconds, but possibly up to 30 seconds

64
Q

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A

Is a Memory System that stores a potentially unlimited amount of information, for up to a lifetime

65
Q

Capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A

Vast, potentially unlimited

66
Q

Duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A

It may be potentially permanent but information can be lost or forgotten over time

67
Q

Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A
  • Explicit Memory

- Implicit Memory

68
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Is memory that occurs when information can be intentionally retrieved and stated

69
Q

Examples of Explicit Memory (List 3)

A
  • Remembering a person’s name
  • Remembering a password
  • Remembering a phone number
  • Remembering the colours of the Italian flag
  • Remembering when your pet died
70
Q

Sub-Types of Explicit Memory

A
  • Semantic Memory

- Episodic Memory

71
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Is the Memory of facts and knowledge about the world

72
Q

Examples of Semantic Memory (List 2)

A
  • Facts
  • General knowledge
  • Meaning of words
  • Rules
73
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Is the memory of personally experienced events. The memories often include details of the time, place and the physical and mental state the individual was in when the event occurred

74
Q

Examples of Episodic Memory (List 2)

A
  • Your first day of school
  • Where you went on holiday last year
  • How you felt during a dental visit last week
  • What you ate for breakfast this morning and how it tasted
75
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Is Memory that does not require intentional retrieval

76
Q

Examples of Implicit Memory (List 3)

A
  • Brushing your teeth
  • Riding a Skateboard
  • Typing on a Keyboard
  • Riding a Bike
  • Buttoning a Shirt
77
Q

Sub-Types of Implicit Memory

A
  • Procedural Memory

- Classically Conditioned Memory

78
Q

Procedural Memory

A

Is the memory of Motor Skills and actions that have been learnt previously

79
Q

Examples of Procedural Memory (List 3)

A
  • How to brush you teeth
  • How to use Chopsticks
  • How to play a chord on Guitar
  • How to tie your shoelaces
  • How to ride a Bike
  • How to cook an Omelette
80
Q

Classically Conditioned Memory

A

Is a Conditioned response to a Conditioned Stimulus acquired through Classical Condition

81
Q

Examples of Classically Conditioned Memory (List 1)

A
  • Immediately experiencing fear when seeing a spider

- Thinking about going to the Dentist brings a individual fear due to experiencing pain in the past at the Dentist

82
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes

A

Are selected and used by each individual and may vary in different situations. They are under the conscious control of the individual, and which Control Process is used depends on what the individual does

83
Q

What are the Control Processes in the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory?

A
  • Attention
  • Rehearsal
  • Retrieval
84
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Attention

A

Refers to whatever an individual chooses to respond to and pay attention to gets transferred to Short-Term Memory

85
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Rehearsal

A

Is where information is repeated over and over again, to transfer it to Long-Term Memory

86
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Retrieval

A

Is the recovery of stored information and bringing it back into conscious awareness for use

87
Q

Brain Structures involved in Memory

A
  • Cerebral Cortex
  • Hippocampus
  • Amygdala
  • Cerebellum
88
Q

Roles of the Cerebral Cortex in Memory (List 2)

A
  • Processes Short-Term Memories (STM)
  • Links memories to other Memories
  • Stores Memories
89
Q

Roles of the Hippocampus in Memory (List 1)

A
  • Turns Short-Term Memories into Long-Term Memories

- Consolidates Semantic and Episodic Memories

90
Q

Roles of Amygdala in Memory (List 2)

A
  • Processes and regulates emotional reactions, particularly fear and anger
  • Forms other Emotional Memories (besides fear and anger)
  • Retrieves Explicit Memories
91
Q

Role of the Cerebellum in Memory

A

Encodes and temporarily stores Procedural Memories

92
Q

Role of Glutamate in Memory

A

It plays crucial roles in the growth and strengthening of Synaptic Connections during learning and the formation of memories

93
Q

Rehearsal

A

Is the process of continuously manipulating information to keep in it Short-Term Memory, to transfer it to Long-Term Memory or to aid storage and retrieval

94
Q

Types of Rehearsal

A
  • Maintenance Rehearsal

- Elaborative Rehearsal

95
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Is the repetition of information over and over again so that it can be kept in Short-Term Memory

96
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information that is already stored in Memory or with other new information to aid its storage and future retrieval from Long-Term Memory

97
Q

Three Types of Retrieval Methods

A
  • Recall
  • Recognition
  • Relearning
98
Q

Recall

A

Is when an individual reproduces information that is stored in their memory

99
Q

Example of Recall

A

What is your name?

100
Q

Types of Recall

A
  • Free Recall
  • Serial Recall
  • Cued Recall
101
Q

Free Recall

A

Is reproducing information from Memory in any order, without the assistance of any Cue

102
Q

Example of Free Recall

A

Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia

103
Q

Serial Recall

A

Is reproducing the information from Memory in the order in which it was learnt

104
Q

Example of Serial Recall

A

Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia in order from most recent to least recent

105
Q

Cued Recall

A

Is reproducing the information from Memory by using a prompt to assist retrieval

106
Q

Example of Cued Recall

A

Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia. Their initials are MT, TA and KR

107
Q

Recognition

A

It involves identifying the correct information among alternatives

108
Q

Example of Recognition

A

Selecting the right answer from a series of Multiple-Choice Questions

109
Q

Relearning

A

Involves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in Long-Term Memory

110
Q

Reconstruction

A

Combining stored information with other available information to form a more coherent and accurate Memory

111
Q

Savings Score

A

Measures the percentage of information retained from the original learning of that information

112
Q

Leading Question

A

Is a question that has been posed in such a way to lead to the desired answer

113
Q

Outline of the Loftus Experiment

A

People were asked to watch a video of a car accident and were then asked to estimate the speed the car was going, using different forms of questions

114
Q

Experimental Design of the Loftus Experiment

A

Independent Groups Design

115
Q

Leading Question in the Loftus Experiment

A

About how fast were the cars going when they ______ each other?

116
Q

Loftus Experiment: Manipulating Memory Reconstruction

A

Memory Reconstruction was manipulated by asking a question with a word such as smashed, bumped, hit, collided or contacted, it had varying degrees of emotional impact

117
Q

Loftus Experiment: Fallibility of Eye-Witness Testimony

A

Memory Reconstruction can be manipulated by the use of a single word that has had a certain degree of emotional impact

118
Q

Brain Trauma

A

Is an umbrella term for a Brain injury that is acquired after birth and impairs the normal functioning of the Brain, either temporarily or permanently

119
Q

Neurodegenerative Disease

A

Is a disorder that is characterised by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and the function of Brain Tissue

120
Q

Examples of Neurodegenerative Diseases (List 2)

A
  • Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
  • Parkinson’s Disease
  • Dementia
  • Motor Neurone Disease (MND)
121
Q

Amnesia

A

Is the loss of Memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting and can be partial or complete, temporary or permanent

122
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Is the inability to form new Memories following an accident

123
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Is the inability to retrieve previously stored Memories following an accident

124
Q

Example of Anterograde Amnesia

A

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

125
Q

Examples of how Retrograde Amnesia Occurs (List 1)

A
  • A blow to the head

- Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

126
Q

Dementia

A

Is a group of illnesses that causes a progressive decline in a person’s mental functioning

127
Q

Symptoms of Dementia (List 3)

A
  • Memory loss
  • Poor social skills
  • Confusion
  • Reduced concentration
  • Personality changes
  • Behaviour changes
128
Q

Example of Dementia

A

Alzheimer’s Disease

129
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

A

Is a type of Dementia that is characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of the Brain’s Neurons, progressively causing memory loss and a decline in social skills and personality changes

130
Q

Brain Damage Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) (List 2)

A
  • Amyloid Plaques
  • Imbalance in Neurotransmitter
  • Neurofibrillary Tangles
  • Cortical shrinkage
131
Q

Memory Impairments Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) (List 2)

A
  • Forgetting
  • Repeating things
  • Getting lost
  • Lack of recognition of family and friends
132
Q

Brain Damage Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

A

The Medial Temporal Lobe, particularly the Hippocampus are most affected as up to 3/4 of the Neurons in this area may be lost, with the remaining Neurons often being left damaged

133
Q

Brain Surgery: H.M.

A

H.M suffered from severe Epileptic Seizures and allowed surgeons to remove his Medial Temporal Lobe from both sides of his Brain. The surgery stopped his Seizures but H.M. was left with Anterograde Amnesia

134
Q

Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Hippocampus

A

There is a disruption to the formation of Semantic and Episodic Memories and their transfer to the Cerebral Cortex for storage. This is because of the disruption to the consolidation of Short- Term Memories to Long-Term Memories

135
Q

Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Amygdala

A

There is an inability to remember the emotion associated with the Long-Term Memories of an event. There is also an impaired ability to recognise facial expressions of emotions

136
Q

Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Cerebral Cortex

A

Depending on which part of the Cerebral Cortex is damaged then that will affect the storage of a particular memory

137
Q

Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Cerebellum

A

This depends on what age, Brain Damage has occurred in the Cerebellum. If at birth Brain Damage has occurred, relatively little effect takes place in Motor Ability. This is because of adaptive plasticity. Otherwise, there are problems with Motor Abilities

138
Q

Retrieval Cue

A

Is any Stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information that is stored in Memory

139
Q

Types of Retrieval Cues

A
  • Context Dependent Cues

- State Dependent Cues

140
Q

Context Dependent Cues

A

Are Environmental Cues from the specific setting where the learning has occurred, which can act as subsequent Retrieval Cues

141
Q

Example of Context Dependent Cues

A

When you return to a place you haven’t been to for a while and get filled with memories

142
Q

State Dependent Cues

A

Are Internal Cues where you are in the same emotional state or setting as when you originally learnt the material

143
Q

Example of State Dependent Cues

A

Getting angry creates an emotional state that triggers a range of past annoyances, such as a breakup

144
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

Is the tendency to have better recall of the items at the start and end of the list, compared to the items in the middle of the list

145
Q

Primary Effect

A

Is the better recall of items at the beginning of a list

146
Q

Recency Effect

A

Is the better recall of items at the end of a list

147
Q

Cause of the Serial Position Effect

A

The Serial Position Effect occurs because there are differences between Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory

Year 12 VCE Psychology (4 decks)

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