Unit 3: Area of Study 2 - How do People Learn and Remember? Flashcards
1
Q
Neural Plasticity
A
Is the ability of the Brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan
2
Q
Synaptic Plasticity
A
Is the ability of the Synapse to change over time
3
Q
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A
Is the long-lasting strengthening of Synaptic Connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective Synaptic Transmission
4
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Long-Term Depression (LTD)
A
Is the long-lasting decrease in the strength of Synaptic Transmission
5
Q
Neurohormones
A
Are chemical messengers that are manufactured by Neurons and released from Axon Terminals
6
Q
Neurotransmitter
A
Is a chemical substance that is made by a Neuron that carries a message to other Neurons or Cells in Muscles, Organs or other Tissue
7
Q
The Role of Glutamate in Synaptic Plasticity
A
Glutamate promotes the growth and strengthening of Synaptic Connections between Neurons within a Neural Pathway that later on represents the memory of what has been learnt
8
Q
Consolidation
A
Is the Biological process of making a newly formed memory stale and enduring after learning
9
Q
The Role of Adrenaline in Learning and Memory
A
Adrenaline can enhance the Consolidation of Long-Term Memories of emotionally arousing experiences, meaning that these types of events are more likely to be remembered
10
Q
The Role of GABA in Neural Plasticity
A
GABA is the primary inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Central Nervous System. One of its functions is to fine-tune Neurotransmission in the Brain. This in turn allows Neurotransmission to be at the best possible level
11
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
Is a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two or more different Stimuli
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Q
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A
Is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response
13
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Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A
Is the response that occurs automatically when the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented
14
Q
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A
Is any Stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response
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Q
Conditioned Stimulus
A
Is the Stimulus that is neutral at the start of the Conditioning Process by eventually produces a very similar response to that caused by the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
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Q
Conditioned Response
A
Is the learned response that is produced by the Conditioned Stimulus
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Q
Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model
A
- Phase 1: Before Conditioning
- Phase 2: During Conditioning
- Phase 3: After Conditioning
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Q
Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 1
A
The Neutral Stimulus produces no relevant response and the Unconditioned Stimulus produces the Unconditioned Response
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Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 2
A
The Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus to produce the Unconditioned Response
20
Q
Classical Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model: Phase 3
A
The Neutral Stimulus becomes a Conditioned Stimulus and the Conditioned Stimulus produces a Conditioned Response, which is usually very similar to the previously Unconditioned Response
21
Q
Stimulus Generalisation
A
Is the tendency for another Stimulus that is similar to the original Conditioned Stimulus to produce a response that is similar, but not identical to the Conditioned Response
22
Q
Stimulus Discrimination
A
Occurs when a person or animal responds to only the Conditioned Stimulus, but not to any other Stimulus that is similar to the Conditioned Stimulus
23
Q
Extinction
A
Is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a Conditioned Response that occurs when the Unconditioned Stimulus is no longer presented
24
Q
Spontaneous Recovery
A
Is the reappearance of a Conditioned Response when the Conditioned Stimulus is presented, following a rest period after the Conditioned Response appears to have been extinguished
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Summary of the Little Albert Experiment
The 9-month-old boy was exposed to Stimuli and observed, but showed no fear. He was exposed to a white rat and showed no fear but when the rat was presented again and Watson hit a metal pipe with a hammer, Albert cried. After the white rate was paired with the loud noise, Albert cried every time he saw the white rat
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Ethical Considerations in the Little Albert Experiment (List 2)
- Informed consent may not have been obtained by Albert's mother
- Withdrawal rights may not have been presented to Albert's mother
- Albert was experiencing severe distress but yet the experiment was not stopped
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Operant Conditioning as a Three-Phase Model
- Antecedent
- Behaviour
- Consequence
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Operant Conditioning
Is a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
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Antecedent
Is a Stimulus that comes before a specific behaviour
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Behaviour
Is the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the Antecedent Stimulus
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Consequence
Is the environmental event that occurs immediately after the Behaviour
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Observational Learning
Occurs when someone uses observation of a person's actions, and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions
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Social Learning
Refers to how the environment in which the learning occurs is important
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Observational Learning Processes
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
- Reinforcement
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Attention
Is the first step in Observational Learning. It is the process that involves closely watching a model's behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour
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Retention
Is the second step in Observational Learning. It involves the storage of the observed behaviour so the behaviour may be reproduced when needed
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Reproduction
Is the third step in Observational Learning. It is the imitation of the behaviour that has already been attended to and retained in memory
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Motivation
It is the fourth step in Observational Learning. It refers to how the learner must be motivated to reproduce the observed behaviour
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Reinforcement (Observational Learning)
It is the fifth step in Observational Learning. Reinforcement influences the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of Reproduction
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Reinforcement
It is when something is given to an individual to either strengthen their response to a behaviour or eliminate it completely
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Types of Reinforcement
- Positive Reinforcement
| - Negative Reinforcement
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Positive Reinforcer
Is a Stimulus that is given to an individual that increases the likelihood of a desired
response occurs by providing a rewarding consequence
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Negative Reinforcer
Is any unpleasant
Stimulus that, when removed increases the likelihood of a specific
response occurring
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Positive Reinforcement
Involves giving a Positive Reinforcer after the desired response has been made
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Negative Reinforcement
Involves the removal of an unpleasant Stimulus, increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated, thereby strengthening the response
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Memory
Is the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning
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Fundamental Processes for Memory
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
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Encoding
Is the conversion of incoming into a usable form so that it can be stored in memory
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Storage
Is the retention of the Encoded information over time for future use
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Retrieval
Is the recovery of stored information and bringing it into Conscious Awareness for use
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory
Is a model that represents Memory as consisting of 3 separate components
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Structural Features
Are the permanent features of Memory that do not vary from one situation to another
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Structural Features of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory
- Sensory Memory
- Short-Term Memory (STM)
- Long-Term (LTM)
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Process of Memory
1. Sensory Information from the External Environment enters Sensory Memory. If it is not attended to, it is lost from Memory
2. If the Sensory Information is attended to, it gets transferred to Short-Term Memory where it gets rehearsed. It it is not rehearsed, it is lost from Short-Term Memory
3. If the Sensory Information is rehearsed in Short-Term Memory, it gets encoded into Long-Term Memory where some information may be lost over time.
4. If a person wants to retrieve the stored information, it gets brought from Long-Term Memory back into Short-Term Memory
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Sensory Memory
Is the entry point of Memory in which incoming Sensory Stimuli are retained in their original form. Sensory Information remains in Sensory Memory just long enough for us to attend to and select the information to be transferred to Short-Term Memory for processing
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Capacity of Sensory Memory
Vast, potentially unlimited
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Duration of Sensory Memory
About 0.2-4 seconds
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Types of Sensory Memory
- Iconic Memory
| - Echoic Memory
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Iconic Memory
Is Visual Sensory Memory for incoming visual information that stores Visual images in their Sensory Form for about 1/3 of a second
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Echoic Memory
Is Auditory Sensory Memory that stores sounds in their original form
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Short-Term Memory (STM)
Is a Memory System that stores information for a relatively short period and maintains the information in conscious awareness for immediate use
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Capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)
7 ± 2 pieces of information
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Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)
About 18-20 seconds, but possibly up to 30 seconds
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Is a Memory System that stores a potentially unlimited amount of information, for up to a lifetime
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Capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Vast, potentially unlimited
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Duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
It may be potentially permanent but information can be lost or forgotten over time
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Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Explicit Memory
| - Implicit Memory
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Explicit Memory
Is memory that occurs when information can be intentionally retrieved and stated
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Examples of Explicit Memory (List 3)
- Remembering a person's name
- Remembering a password
- Remembering a phone number
- Remembering the colours of the Italian flag
- Remembering when your pet died
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Sub-Types of Explicit Memory
- Semantic Memory
| - Episodic Memory
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Semantic Memory
Is the Memory of facts and knowledge about the world
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Examples of Semantic Memory (List 2)
- Facts
- General knowledge
- Meaning of words
- Rules
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Episodic Memory
Is the memory of personally experienced events. The memories often include details of the time, place and the physical and mental state the individual was in when the event occurred
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Examples of Episodic Memory (List 2)
- Your first day of school
- Where you went on holiday last year
- How you felt during a dental visit last week
- What you ate for breakfast this morning and how it tasted
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Implicit Memory
Is Memory that does not require intentional retrieval
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Examples of Implicit Memory (List 3)
- Brushing your teeth
- Riding a Skateboard
- Typing on a Keyboard
- Riding a Bike
- Buttoning a Shirt
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Sub-Types of Implicit Memory
- Procedural Memory
| - Classically Conditioned Memory
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Procedural Memory
Is the memory of Motor Skills and actions that have been learnt previously
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Examples of Procedural Memory (List 3)
- How to brush you teeth
- How to use Chopsticks
- How to play a chord on Guitar
- How to tie your shoelaces
- How to ride a Bike
- How to cook an Omelette
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Classically Conditioned Memory
Is a Conditioned response to a Conditioned Stimulus acquired through Classical Condition
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Examples of Classically Conditioned Memory (List 1)
- Immediately experiencing fear when seeing a spider
| - Thinking about going to the Dentist brings a individual fear due to experiencing pain in the past at the Dentist
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes
Are selected and used by each individual and may vary in different situations. They are under the conscious control of the individual, and which Control Process is used depends on what the individual does
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What are the Control Processes in the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory?
- Attention
- Rehearsal
- Retrieval
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Attention
Refers to whatever an individual chooses to respond to and pay attention to gets transferred to Short-Term Memory
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Rehearsal
Is where information is repeated over and over again, to transfer it to Long-Term Memory
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory: Control Processes - Retrieval
Is the recovery of stored information and bringing it back into conscious awareness for use
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Brain Structures involved in Memory
- Cerebral Cortex
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
- Cerebellum
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Roles of the Cerebral Cortex in Memory (List 2)
- Processes Short-Term Memories (STM)
- Links memories to other Memories
- Stores Memories
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Roles of the Hippocampus in Memory (List 1)
- Turns Short-Term Memories into Long-Term Memories
| - Consolidates Semantic and Episodic Memories
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Roles of Amygdala in Memory (List 2)
- Processes and regulates emotional reactions, particularly fear and anger
- Forms other Emotional Memories (besides fear and anger)
- Retrieves Explicit Memories
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Role of the Cerebellum in Memory
Encodes and temporarily stores Procedural Memories
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Role of Glutamate in Memory
It plays crucial roles in the growth and strengthening of Synaptic Connections during learning and the formation of memories
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Rehearsal
Is the process of continuously manipulating information to keep in it Short-Term Memory, to transfer it to Long-Term Memory or to aid storage and retrieval
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Types of Rehearsal
- Maintenance Rehearsal
| - Elaborative Rehearsal
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Maintenance Rehearsal
Is the repetition of information over and over again so that it can be kept in Short-Term Memory
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Elaborative Rehearsal
Is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information that is already stored in Memory or with other new information to aid its storage and future retrieval from Long-Term Memory
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Three Types of Retrieval Methods
- Recall
- Recognition
- Relearning
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Recall
Is when an individual reproduces information that is stored in their memory
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Example of Recall
What is your name?
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Types of Recall
- Free Recall
- Serial Recall
- Cued Recall
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Free Recall
Is reproducing information from Memory in any order, without the assistance of any Cue
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Example of Free Recall
Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia
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Serial Recall
Is reproducing the information from Memory in the order in which it was learnt
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Example of Serial Recall
Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia in order from most recent to least recent
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Cued Recall
Is reproducing the information from Memory by using a prompt to assist retrieval
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Example of Cued Recall
Naming the last 3 Prime Ministers of Australia. Their initials are MT, TA and KR
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Recognition
It involves identifying the correct information among alternatives
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Example of Recognition
Selecting the right answer from a series of Multiple-Choice Questions
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Relearning
Involves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in Long-Term Memory
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Reconstruction
Combining stored information with other available information to form a more coherent and accurate Memory
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Savings Score
Measures the percentage of information retained from the original learning of that information
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Leading Question
Is a question that has been posed in such a way to lead to the desired answer
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Outline of the Loftus Experiment
People were asked to watch a video of a car accident and were then asked to estimate the speed the car was going, using different forms of questions
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Experimental Design of the Loftus Experiment
Independent Groups Design
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Leading Question in the Loftus Experiment
About how fast were the cars going when they ______ each other?
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Loftus Experiment: Manipulating Memory Reconstruction
Memory Reconstruction was manipulated by asking a question with a word such as smashed, bumped, hit, collided or contacted, it had varying degrees of emotional impact
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Loftus Experiment: Fallibility of Eye-Witness Testimony
Memory Reconstruction can be manipulated by the use of a single word that has had a certain degree of emotional impact
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Brain Trauma
Is an umbrella term for a Brain injury that is acquired after birth and impairs the normal functioning of the Brain, either temporarily or permanently
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Neurodegenerative Disease
Is a disorder that is characterised by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and the function of Brain Tissue
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Examples of Neurodegenerative Diseases (List 2)
- Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
- Parkinson's Disease
- Dementia
- Motor Neurone Disease (MND)
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Amnesia
Is the loss of Memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting and can be partial or complete, temporary or permanent
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Anterograde Amnesia
Is the inability to form new Memories following an accident
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Retrograde Amnesia
Is the inability to retrieve previously stored Memories following an accident
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Example of Anterograde Amnesia
Korsakoff's Syndrome
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Examples of how Retrograde Amnesia Occurs (List 1)
- A blow to the head
| - Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
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Dementia
Is a group of illnesses that causes a progressive decline in a person's mental functioning
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Symptoms of Dementia (List 3)
- Memory loss
- Poor social skills
- Confusion
- Reduced concentration
- Personality changes
- Behaviour changes
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Example of Dementia
Alzheimer's Disease
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Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
Is a type of Dementia that is characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of the Brain's Neurons, progressively causing memory loss and a decline in social skills and personality changes
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Brain Damage Associated with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) (List 2)
- Amyloid Plaques
- Imbalance in Neurotransmitter
- Neurofibrillary Tangles
- Cortical shrinkage
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Memory Impairments Associated with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) (List 2)
- Forgetting
- Repeating things
- Getting lost
- Lack of recognition of family and friends
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Brain Damage Associated with Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
The Medial Temporal Lobe, particularly the Hippocampus are most affected as up to 3/4 of the Neurons in this area may be lost, with the remaining Neurons often being left damaged
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Brain Surgery: H.M.
H.M suffered from severe Epileptic Seizures and allowed surgeons to remove his Medial Temporal Lobe from both sides of his Brain. The surgery stopped his Seizures but H.M. was left with Anterograde Amnesia
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Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Hippocampus
There is a disruption to the formation of Semantic and Episodic Memories and their transfer to the Cerebral Cortex for storage. This is because of the disruption to the consolidation of Short- Term Memories to Long-Term Memories
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Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Amygdala
There is an inability to remember the emotion associated with the Long-Term Memories of an event. There is also an impaired ability to recognise facial expressions of emotions
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Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Cerebral Cortex
Depending on which part of the Cerebral Cortex is damaged then that will affect the storage of a particular memory
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Memory Impairments Associated with Damage to the Cerebellum
This depends on what age, Brain Damage has occurred in the Cerebellum. If at birth Brain Damage has occurred, relatively little effect takes place in Motor Ability. This is because of adaptive plasticity. Otherwise, there are problems with Motor Abilities
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Retrieval Cue
Is any Stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information that is stored in Memory
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Types of Retrieval Cues
- Context Dependent Cues
| - State Dependent Cues
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Context Dependent Cues
Are Environmental Cues from the specific setting where the learning has occurred, which can act as subsequent Retrieval Cues
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Example of Context Dependent Cues
When you return to a place you haven't been to for a while and get filled with memories
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State Dependent Cues
Are Internal Cues where you are in the same emotional state or setting as when you originally learnt the material
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Example of State Dependent Cues
Getting angry creates an emotional state that triggers a range of past annoyances, such as a breakup
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Serial Position Effect
Is the tendency to have better recall of the items at the start and end of the list, compared to the items in the middle of the list
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Primary Effect
Is the better recall of items at the beginning of a list
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Recency Effect
Is the better recall of items at the end of a list
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Cause of the Serial Position Effect
The Serial Position Effect occurs because there are differences between Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory
