Unit 4 Flashcards
What were some of Mussolini’s foreign policy aims?
-key goal = to assert Italy’s position as a world power, standing up for Italy’s territorial aims, and revising the treaty of Versailles
-overcome shame of a ‘mutilated victory’
-assert Italy’s power within Mediterranean Sea, unfairly dominated by the British
-Italians to be transformed into a more militant, aggressive race who would claim Italy’s position as a dominant power
How did Mussolini’s means of achieving his foreign policy aims change?
->Mussolini looked to take action against increased threat of Hitler/Nazi Germany (this included forming alliances with Britain and France)
->Mussolini’s foreign policy aims in Africa eventually brought him into conflict with his allies
->entrance into Spanish Civil War and aims at revising Italian borders = aggressive foreign policy and alliances, contributing to ww2
How did Mussolini’s actions differ between smaller and larger countries?
-wanted to demonstrate to powers such as Britain and France that Italy capable of maintaining peace
-more aggressive with smaller countries, most evident with Greece
What is ‘Spazio Vitale’?
Living space
When was an Italian general killed between the border of Greece and Albania?
Italian general Enrico Tellini murdered -> whilst leaving inter-allied commission on the 27th August 1923
->Mussolini used to attack the Greek gov
What were Mussolini’s demands of Greece following Enrico Tellini’s murder?
-Greek government attend funeral service
-had to honour Italian flag
-pay penalty of 50 million lire to Italy
-otherwise Italian gov would invade Corfu
When did Italy first invade Corfu?
31st August 1923 -> Italy bombarded Corfu without warning and occupied island, celebrated by Italian nationalists
Impact on foreign relations as a result of Italian invasion of Corfu?
LoN, with British backing, demanded Mussolini end occupation and that matter to be put to international arbitration
Why did Italy’s position determine the outcome of the Corfu crisis?
Italy’s military position determined decision to concede and di Revel (head of Italian navy), said that Italy wouldn’t last 48 hours against the British fleet
When did Italy decide to leave Corfu?
27th September, and in subsequent negotiations received 50 million lire
What did the Corfu Incident teach Mussolini?
made sure not to repeat aggressive foreign policy throughout the 1920s -> preferred to achieve aims through careful negotiation
->demonstrated that Mussolini was a dynamic ruler, willing to stand up for Italian pride
What was Mussolini’s success regarding ‘Fiume’?
January 1924 -> Yugoslavia agreed to recognise Fiume as a part of Italy, extremely popular considering the failure of d’Annunzio’s occupation of Fiume
What was a significant Treaty that Italy helped to create in 1925?
Locarno Treaty was partly agreed to by Germany (joined League of Nations, accepted pre-First World War borders),
->came as a result of Italian negotiations, Mussolini felt accepted as one of the ‘Great Powers’
Who did Mussolini support in Albania?
Mussolini backed Ahmet Zogu’s ascension to president in January 1925
-Through support and bribery of Zogu, Albania became an informal Italian protectorate, extending Italian influence in south Eastern Europe
When did Ahmet Zogu declare himself King of Albania?
self-proclamation as King Zog 1 in 1928
Which Nationalist forces did Mussolini support in Eastern Europe?
Croatian, Ustasha, Macedonian
What did Croatian terrorists do in 1934?
financed by Italian fascists assassinated the Yugoslavian King, Alexander
Which campaign in Africa did Mussolini continue?
The ‘Pacification of Libya’, (1929-1932)
->Mussolini used brutal means such as poison gas
How much of Libya’s population were killed (or starved)?
1/3
How many Libyans were forced from their homes and how many died in transit?
100,000 Libyans were forced from their homes and 40,000 died either in or while being transported to Italian concentration camps
When was the Libyan campaign put down?
1932
What was another pact that Mussolini was involved in the making of?
1928 -> Mussolini signed Kellog-Briand Pact… nine other powers signed on 27th August 1928, eventually signed by 56 other nations
-Mussolini wanted pact to be signed in Rome, refused and Mussolini dismissed the pact
What led to Mussolini sending troops to the Austrian border?
->Mussolini encouraged Austrian Chancellor, Dollfuss, to clamp down on Austrian Nazis and enforce fascist principles
->Dollfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis
How many troops did Mussolini send to the Austrian border?
July 1934 and Mussolini feared a German invasion, so he sent 40,000 troops to the border
What led to the ‘Stresa Front’?
->came as a result of Germany reintroducing conscription/rearming in spite of ToV -> Mussolini called meeting with France and Britain to discuss these matters
->called conference in April 1935 in Stresa
What conclusions were made at the Stresa Front?
-All three powers criticised German rearmament
-They agreed to collaborate to prevent Germany contravening previous peace treaties
-They reaffirmed their support for the Locarno treaties
-They agreed to support an independent Austria
What were the implications of the Stresa Front for Germany?
high-point for Mussolini’s cooperation with Britain and France, Stresa Front was vague and little action taken from it
-undermined Britain’s Anglo-Naval Agreement
Why did Mussolini want to capture Abyssinia?
-To satisfy Italy’s nationalist and colonial ambitions and increase the regime’s popularity at home
-To provide fascism with a major propaganda victory
-To demonstrate to the world that Italy was a major power
What took place in Wal Wal?
December 1934 -> military confrontation at Wal Wal oasis Mussolini used this as an excuse to invade
How many Abyssinians versus Italians were killed at Wal Wal?
A - 150
I - 50
How many troops did Mussolini have on the border in Abyssinia in 1935
Mussolini had 220,000 troops on the border by October 1935
Response from LoN to Abyssinian invasion?
Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations but they refused to intervene
What were some of the motivating factors for the Abyssinian invasion?
-planning for war helped economy and war-related contracts commissioned in 1932, helped fuel and arms industry
-invasion linked to autarky, would provide raw materials/areas for agricultural expansion
-Southern Italian peasants would move over and begin farming land
-establishment of Italian empire in Africa, part of wider radicalisation of policy
-Concerns within fascist party that Mussolini needed to pursue more fascist concerns
-victory in Abyssinia would add to prestige of regime
-successful campaign in Africa may demonstrate to Hitler the power of fascist Italy
When did Mussolini launch the Abyssinian invasion?
October 1935
How many men did Mussolini launch the Abyssinian invasion with?
400,000 -> hoping for quick and decisive victory
Who did Mussolini change the head of army to and why?
Italian progress slowing -> November he replaced head of army, Emilio De Bono, with Marshal Pietro Badoglio (waged war brutally)
When did Italy invade the capital of Abyssinia?
5th May Italian army entered capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa
How many Italians listened to Mussolini’s public radio broadcast on the 9th May?
20 million Italians listened to Mussolini’s public radio broadcast on the 9th May
What were some of the immediate consequences that came after the Abyssinian victory?
league of nations placed limited sanctions on Italy -> banning weapon sales but crucially not oil and Suez Canal was not closed
What were the fascist reactions to Mussolini’s victory?
-> sanctions imposed were a propaganda coup for the fascists ->Mussolini portrayed as a leader who was standing up to the world and defying attempts to limit Italian power
->Strong parallels with the ‘mutilated victory’
What campaign did the Italian royal family lead for the war effort?
18th December 1935 -> royal family launched ‘Gold for Patria’ campaign -> Queen Elena presented her wedding ring to be melted
->women gave wedding rings to be melted
What did the ‘Gold for Patria’ campaign signify?
given steel ring in return, symbolised their marriage to the nation
What legacy did the Abyssinian invasion have on Mussolini’s rule?
Mussolini achieved true greatness with Abyssinian invasion
->Italian Nation, Royal Family and Church all proclaimed Mussolini’s greatness
->fulfilled the image of the new Caesar
What was the state of the Abyssinian invasion after Mussolini declared an Italian victory?
2/3 of Abyssinia was still to be occupied, costs associated with supplying the 250,000 troops were considerable
How many Italians settled in Abyssinia?
130,000 -> autarkic possibility never materialised
How much Italian trade went to Abyssinia?
2%
What were some of the economic consequences of the war?
-lira was devalued by 40%
-budget deficit rose from 2.5 billion lire to 16 billion lire
How many Abyssinians died in the conflict?
500,000 -> illegal use of chemical weapons… changed country’s, such as Britain, perception of Mussolini
How was Italy perceived post-Abyssinia conflict?
-a danger to European peace
-weakness of the League of Nations
-Abyssinia signalled split of Italy’s relations with France and Britain
-Italy’s economic problems were enhanced by the League of Nations’ sanctions
-France and Britain’s perceived weakness also enabled Mussolini to act more aggressively in the future
When did Hitler breach the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, by occupying the Rhineland?
March 1936, Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland
->Britain and France made no attempt to stop Hitler (added to Mussolini’s perception that France and Britain = weak)
What did the Rhineland signal for Mussolini’s relations with the Allies?
an excuse for Mussolini to move towards Nazi Germany and draw concessions from Africa and the Mediterranean from the French and British
When did Mussolini commit Italian troops to the Spanish Civil War?
July 1936 -> committed on side of General Franco
->Hitler also committed troops… Italian fascism/German nazism fought on the same side for the first time
From a propaganda point of view, why did Mussolini intervene in the Spanish Civil War?
quick victory for Italy… keep momentum of Abyssinia going and fuel Cult of Il Duce -> Italian society = militaristic
What troops/provisions did Mussolini send to the Spanish Civil War?
-50,000 soldiers
-thousands of artillery and tanks
-1,400 pilots
-400 fighter planes
-200 bombers
When was General Franco victorious?
1939, aided by Italy and Germany -> length of Civil War had not been anticipated by Mussolini
What was the Italian casualty rate in the Spanish Civil War?
3,266 soldiers killed -> 11,000 wounded
What was the economic impact of the Spanish Civil War intervention on Italy?
-severe disruption of the Italian economy
-special taxes exacted from Italian population to pay for war
-lira further devalued and Italian foreign currency reserves halved
-Italy became more financially dependent on Germany
How much did the SCW cost Italy?
14 billion lire
What was the reaction of the Italian people to Italy’s intervention into the Spanish Civil War?
-intervention into Spain was not popular
-people couldn’t understand why Italy had intervened and resented economic costs
-War severely weakened Italian army… by 1939 considerably weaker than 1936
What was an embarrassing event for the Italian army, when fighting in the Spanish Civil War?
Battle of Guadalajara - March 1937, Italian troops were defeated by republican army and antifascist volunteers -> highlighted the weakness of Italian army
When did Mussolini first meet Hitler and what were his opinions of him?
first met in 1934, Mussolini found Hitler fanatical yet boring,
->Mussolini further alarmed by murder of Dolfuss and fear of Anschluss, prompted the Stresa Front
What was the turning point for Mussolini’s relations with the other allies versus Germany?
The Abyssinia war, the British and French had drawn up the Hoare-Laval Pact -> led to British public opinion turning against Mussolini
->Mussolini felt League of Nation’s antagonism prompted by British
What was the Hoare-Laval Pact?
Drawn up between GB and France -> going to allocate 2/3 of Abyssinia to Mussolini (plan leaked) -> public outrage and plane dropped
How did Italian military action worsen its relationship with Britain?
early summer 1938 -> Italian bombing raid on Spanish ports sunk 11 British ships
->Italian submarines pretending to be Spanish sunk neutral ships in the Med
What was the informal agreement proposed by Britain to Italy?
January 1937 -> ‘Gentleman’s agreement’, reinforced status quo in Mediterranean
->Mussolini ignored agreement
What did GB recognise in April 1938?
Italian rule of Abyssinia
What was the informal agreement of cooperation between Italy and Germany?
Rome-Berlin Axis -> October 1936
->stated informal cooperation between two states
->Hitler happy to take advantage of Italy’s economic problems and Italian exports increasingly reliant on German markets
How many Germans came to hear Mussolini speak on his visit to Germany/when?
800,000 -> September 1937
German nation/people had impressed Mussolini -> observed a militant society similar to what he wanted to replicate within Italy
What was the Anti-Comintern Pact and when did Italy join it?
November 1937
->Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan -> established mutual support in case of aggression from the Soviet Union
What confirmed Italy as a revisionist power?
Italy withdrew from LoN in 1937 and joined the Anti-Comintern Pact
(Italy still negotiating Britain and Germany)
When did Hitler invade Austria and what was Mussolini’s reaction?
March 1938 -> unlike 1934
->Mussolini made no attempt to stop Nazis… Anschluss unpopular in Italy, perceived to be a personal failure for Mussolini as Hitler clearly more powerful
What did the Anschluss signal the beginning of?
from March 1938 Italy began to become a Nazi satellite state
What did Germany receive at the Munich Conference?
the Sudetenland
What role did Mussolini play at the Munich Conference?
September 1938 -> Mussolini had significant role in brokering a deal that gave the Sudetenland to Germany in order to evade a full-blown European war
When was the Rome-Berlin Axis?
October 1936
What were the terms agreed by the Rome-Berlin axis?
Agreed by Foreign Minister, Ciano
->negotiated that Germany would have freedom of action in Eastern Europe/Baltic (sea) whilst supporting Italian attempts to gain power in the Mediterranean
What were some of Mussolini’s unpopular policies with the Italian people?
-The quest for autarky meant that consumer products became more expensive
-The ‘Battle for Grain’ had worsened Italian diets and the general living standards of agricultural, industrial and civil workers were in decline
-The Italian economy was becoming increasingly reliant on Germany, solidified by a commercial treaty signed between the two in February 1939
How much of the state deficit was made up of military spending?
80% (1935-39) -> squeezing middle-class incomes and savings
What was arguably one of Mussolini’s most unpopular policies regarding German foreign policy?
transfer of Italian workers -> often treated poorly by the Germans, saw them as inferior and the policy
->contradicted Mussolini’s frequent speeches about asserting that Italian workers should remain in Italy
Why was the Anschluss unpopular with the Italian people?
Anschluss and ‘reform of customs’/anti-semitic policy of 1938 humiliated the Italian army and Mussolini
How many Italian workers had been transferred to Germany by 1945?
500,000
Despite unpopular foreign policy, why did Mussolini remain popular among many?
By 1939 whole generation, who had grown up with no other leader except Mussolini -> no alternative to Fascist regime their whole lives
When did Mussolini invade Albania?
April 1939 -> Albania = Italian protectorate
->economic incentive, King Zog had encouraged investment into other countries
-Ciano felt Albania was compensation for letting Hitler take Austria
How did the Albanian invasion demonstrate the weakness of Italian troops?
->unorganised and using weapons without training, poor coordination between army, navy and air force
-Victor Emmanuel crowned emperor of Albania and Abyssinia
What confirmed the growing relations between Italy and Germany, in 1939?
May 1939 -> Pact of Steel signed, signalled the full alliance between the two countries
Who was the drafting of the Pact of Steel left to?
the Germans
What was the Article that required Italy’s military backing in war, in the Pact of Steel?
Article 3 -> stated that if Germany chose to go to war, Italy had to support it with ‘all its military forces on land, sea and in the air’
When did Ciano say Italy would be ready for war?
1943
When was the Pact of Steel officially signed?
22nd May 1939
When did Germany tell Italy they were planning to invade Poland?
11th August -> Ciano disgusted by German betrayal
What was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
non-aggression pact between Russia and Germany
->for Italy the Nazi-Soviet Pact contravened the Anti-Comintern Pact
When was the Nazi-Soviet Pact signed?
23rd August 1939
Why did Mussolini not want to remain neutral in the Second World War?
Mussolini’s rhetoric closely linked to militarism and aggression ->ideology seemed hollow if Italy didn’t follow through
->also making same decision as Liberal government 1914… felt this was a shameful choice
What did Mussolini demand in turn for backing Germany in the war on 26th August?
-170 million tonnes of goods
-6 million tonnes of coal
-2 million tonnes of steel
-150 anti-aircraft batteries
-17,000 trains to transport the goods
When and why did Hitler remove Mussolini from Pact of Steel obligation?
27th August
-> due to the demands listed by Mussolini, if he was to enter war alongside Hitler
When did the Allies declare war on Germany?
3rd September 1939
Who dissuaded Mussolini from intervening in the war?
-Fascist Grand Council
-General Franco of Spain
-Portuguese dictator Oliveira Salazar
-The Vatican
-Ciano
-King Victor Emmanuel
-American President Roosevelt
What did Mussolini declare instead of ‘neutrality’?
Non-belligerence
What were some of the reasons for Italy entering WW2 on the side of Germany?
-German advance of May 1940 (captured Holland, Belgium, and France)
-idea of having an extremely powerful German empire on its borders
When did Mussolini meet with Badoglio?
26th May 1940 -> thought Germany was going to be victorious by September
When did Italy enter ww2?
10th June 1940
What was the concept of Italy joining the war with Germany?
‘parallel war’
->Italy would focus on Mediterranean basin, hinterland and Northern Africa
->Germany would focus on northern, central and eastern europe
When did France request an armistice with Germany?
17th June 1940
What territories did Mussolini ask Hitler for during ww2?
Corsica, Savoy, Nice, Tunisia, Sudan, Somalia, Cyprus and Crete (followed surrender of France to Germany)
When did the Italian troops advance into the French Alps?
20th June 1940
-> advance was slow… Italians captured 13 important villages at cost of 631 men (many from frostbite)
What problems did the Italian advance into the French Alps highlight?
-Italian army lacked proper clothing for an alpine war
-the Italian air force lacked the bombs needed
-Mussolini insisted on using tanks that were completely inadequate for the terrain
When did the French gov sign an armistice with Germany?
22nd June 1940
What did Mussolini mistakenly do as of the 7th July 1940?
partially demobilised Italian troops because he believed that the war was partially over -> serious miscalculation
Where were Italian troops ordered to attack from October 1940?
Africa -> Italian troops were to attack British positions in Libya
->early successes crossing Egypt and Suez Canal
->when Britain counter-attacked in December Italian troops fell into mass retreat
What was the Italian defeat like in Africa, in the first few weeks of 1941?
Italian force of nearly 250,000 defeated by 30,000 much better equipped British soldiers
->by May 1941, Italy had lost Eritrea, Somalia and most critically Abyssinia
How many Italian troops surrendered in the African invasion in 1941?
380,000 -> surrendered/taken prisoner
What was the British advance in Libya halted by?
German troops under the command of General Erwin Rommel
When did the German-Italian axis surrender in North Africa?
German forces in retreat from October 1942
->May 1943, axis surrendered in North Africa… Libya was lost,
->Allies were planning an invasion of Italy from Tunisia
How were the Italian advances in the Mediterranean coming along?
->Italian strategy = confusing/inadequate
->strategically important British bases in Malta faced no sustained attack
->Italian navy had been crippled by a British air attack in November 1940 and Italy had extremely poor coordination between air force and navy
Result of the parallel war by 1943?
Italy had failed achieve any of the aims
When did Italy launch its attack on Greece?
28th October 1940 - entered via Albania
What were the Italian motivations for invading Greece?
->Nazis had occupied Romanian oil fields, seen to be Hitler attempting to push his power into the Balkans
-also part of a power game… Mussolini invaded without telling Hitler
How many troops did Mussolini assume the Greeks would have
Mussolini assumed Greeks had 30,000 troops -> attacked with 60,000 they had 300,000
->Mussolini also assumed that Bulgaria would join invasion and didn’t coordinate the air force/navy
Why was the choice of 28th October 1940 a mistake for the Italian invasion of Greece?
weather conditions were extremely poor, wet and freezing,
->Italian forces were bogged down by difficult conditions and their uniforms disintegrated in the heavy rain
What were the consequences of the Greek invasion for Italy?
-1/4 of Albania was taken over
-500,000 Italian soldiers deployed
-32,000 killed
-100,000 wounded
Who did Mussolini have to call upon during the Greek invasion?
Mussolini was humiliated when he had to call on Germany who put down the invasion in weeks
What were some of the reasons for Italy’s poor military performance?
-Inadequacies in the economy
-lack of military preparation
-Mussolini’s leadership ( Minister of War, Minister of Navy, Minister of the Air Force, Supreme Commander and head of five separate ministries)
-Mussolini took all major decisions without consultation with military experts
-unable to coordinate the navy, army and air force and became bored by details of discussion
Factors that contributed to Italy’s economic and military weakness in ww2?
-Rifles and cannons from ww1
-Language barriers and misunderstanding between the officer class and peasants
How many of the 75 Italian divisions could be armed?
35
How many of Italy’s tanks/artillery were destroyed by British attacks?
1/3 tanks
1/4 artillery
Production of vehicles by Fiat and S.P.A?
Fiat and S.P.A only produced 2,550 vehicles a month in 1941, when they had been able to make 4,883 a month in 1938
How many aircrafts could the US produce compared to Italy?
more in a week than Italy could produce in a year
How much oil and coal did Germany import?
-1.5 million tonnes of oil from Romania
-1 million tonnes of coal from Germany… a month
How did Italian steel production compare to Britain?
Steel production in 1943 was was 1.7 million tonnes compared to Britain’s 14 million tonnes
What was the ration amount during ww2?
only allowed 1000 calories a day and coffee became a luxury
At what % of its potential was Italy operating at during ww2?
25%
Increase in Italian GDP between 1940-42?
0%
When was Italy’s first strike in the Mussolini era?
5th March 1943 -> 100,000 workers went on strike in Turin and this soon spread to Milan
->first mass protest within Axis controlled Europe
Why did the first strike happen?
Communist workers helped organise the strikes, which demanded better pay for people forced to evacuate their homes
What evidence was there that antifascism was resurging?
-Illegal communist newspaper L’Unita resurged in 1942
-The ‘Party Action’ was formed, which was an antifascist group made up of republicans, radicals, and left-leaning liberals
-‘Catholic Action’ also formed, made up of Catholic Action members in 1942
-First time in Italian politics that Communists and Catholics had collaborated
How many political arrests were there between March and June of 1943?
1,400
Who posed the greatest threat to Mussolini’s power, from within Italy, during ww2?
-conservative elite
-Vatican
-military leaders
-industrialists
-the police
(all considering how to depose Mussolini)
When did Axis troops surrender in Northern Africa?
13th May 1943, under General Montgomery
->Allies had an open route to Tunisia to invade Sicily
When did Allied troops land on Sicily?
9th July 1943
How soon after landing did the Allied troops conquer the Western half of Sicily?
faced very little opposition from Italian forces and conquered the Western half of Sicily in only a week
When did Mussolini ask Hitler for troops to be transferred to Sicily and the Allied bombing of Rome take place?
19th July 1943, Hitler refused to transfer troops and Allied planes bombed Rome for two hours killing 1,500 people
When did the Allies take full control of Sicily?
17th August 1943
How did the idea of deposing Mussolini originate?
Leading fascists Grandi and Ciano wanted to seek peace
->Allies made it clear that they would only offer an armistice if Mussolini was deposed, only the King could depose Mussolini, through the Vatican
->King opened up talks with the Allies
->29th May USA would negotiate peace deal with Italian gov if the King deposed Mussolini
How did Mussolini’s deposition unfold, post-Sicilian invasion?
16th July… fascists convinced Mussolini to call Fascist Grand Council meeting (for the 24th July 1943)
->head of police, King’s advisors and army generals all informed
->Grandi’s resolution passed 19 to 7
What was the King’s role in M’s deposition?
Mussolini met with King 25th July 1943 -> King decided to replace Mussolini
->Mussolini met by Admiral Franco Maugeri and taken to prison
Before Mussolini’s deposition when had the FGC last met?
September 1939
How long did Grandi take to deliberate on Mussolini’s deposition?
8 days
What were the Allies motivations for invading Italy?
-advantageous to gain airfields in Italy, to attack Germany
-hoped to capture Rome before Christmas but fought a slow battle
Who took over control from Mussolini?
Marshall Badoglio
When did Badoglio sign a surrender with the allies?
3rd September 1943 -> made public 8th September
What were the terms of Italy’s surrender to the Allies?
-all of Italy’s airfields were secured
-entire Italian navy was handed over
-Allies were also guaranteed 60,000 troops
What happened to the Italian troops who were fighting?
Commanded to attack in retaliation -> the soldiers were left in confusion (had just been fighting with German soldiers)
-> army began to dissolve
How many Italian soldiers were taken prisoner after the Italian surrender?
1 million
->1,200 Italian soldiers were killed in Greece and a further 4,800 were captured and shot
When did the conflict between Italy and Germany commence?
9th September 1943 -> German entered Italy… King, Badoglio and top military leaders fled South, leaving Italy in chaos
->13th September 1943, Italy officially declared to be at war with Germany, allied soldiers were to do the vast majority of the fighting
How long did it take for the Allies to capture Rome?
nine months for the invasion (opposed to supposed four)
->much of the fighting took place across mountains, narrow ridges and valleys… freezing = brutal war for Allies and Germany
How many German soldiers did the Allied capture of Rome withdraw from France?
One million
When did Rome fall to the allied forces?
4th June 1944
When did the Allies capture the North of Italy?
2nd May 1945
How/when was Mussolini broken out of imprisonment?
rescued by German commandoes on the 12th September in an aerial raid (28th August 1943 -> transferred to a remote prison in the mountains of Italy)
->brought back to Germany… 13th September met with Hitler
What were Hitler’s intentions for Mussolini after his capture?
H demanded that M return to Italy and and head a new fascist gov
…if M refused German forces would destroy Milan, Genoa, and Turin
->M spent two weeks in Germany during which time he made radio broadcasts to Italy
When did Mussolini establish the new fascist gov?
->25th September 1943, established capital in Gargano on Lake Garda (Nazi puppet state)
->foreign ministry and Ministry of Popular Culture established in Salo = Republica Sociale Italiana (RSI)/Salo Republic
->Salo controlled richest/most populated areas in Italy (Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Veneto and Emilia)
->Mussolini created cabinet comprised of radical fascists, previously involved in black shirt militia
How far apart were Salo governing bodies spread to make the difficult to govern?
100 miles
How much did the RSI have to pay Hitler a month?
7 billion lire
When did Mussolini outline the new manifesto?
14th November 1943 -> first congress held in Verona… Verona manifesto drawn up (anticlerical and nationalized aims)
->much of new policy never enforced because of a lack of time, support and willingness
What happened to private Italian companies from 12th February 1944?
More than 100 employees or 1 million lire in capital -> managed equally by workers and employees
What happened to the fascists who had turned against Mussolini?
January five fascists arrested, including Ciano
->sentenced to death… 13 others later sentenced same way, including Grandi
->executions were carried out on the 11th January 1944
What was the RSI’s role in antisemitism?
assisted the Nazis in sending Jewish Italians to Nazi death camps and the Verona Manifesto declared that Judaism was a nationality and all Jews were to be classed as the enemy
How many Italian Jews were sent to Nazi camps?
7,500 Italian Jews were taken from Italian to Nazi camps where 7000 were executed
What army did the RSI set up?
Formed new militia -> National republic Guard (GNR)
How many men did the GNR recruit?
-140,000 men (1944 -> 200,000 men)
-Navy = 20,000
-Air force = 28,000
-Anti-aircraft service = 50,000
=573,000 men in RSI armed forces
Which conflict arose between the North and South as a result of the RSI?
brutal war raged between antifascist forces and German/RSI forces
->North terrorised, ensuring they wouldn’t shelter partisans-
-Of all cases of civilians being executed in the war in the north, 10% were carried out by the RSI
German policy for North of Italy regarding death of German soldiers?
German policy set out that for every German soldier that died ten Italians would be executed
->Partisan attacks in March 1944 killed 33 German soldiers = execution of 335 Italians
What did the King create within the South of Italy?
royal government of Kingdom of the South -> client state for the Allies
->King kept prefects and podestas in power… conservatives feared a re-emergence of communism and socialism
Who was Badoglio replaced by?
Former prime minister and antifascist liberal Ivanoe Bonomi
What was the conscription uptake like in the South?
Wanted 100,000 men… Italian anger at the state meant only 50,000 conscripted
When was Mussolini’s last important speech?
16th December 1944 -> told spectators in Milan King and conservative elite had betrayed Italy
When did Mussolini try and negotiate a surrender with the partisans?
25th April 1945 -> Mussolini offered to surrender if allowed to retreat North with 3,000 loyal blackshirts
When/how did Mussolini try to escape Italy?
Mussolini tried to escape through Switzerland with evacuating German soldiers
-> 27th April 1945 found by Partisans disguised as a German soldier, Mussolini was arrested alongside his young mistress Claretta Petacci
When was Mussolini executed?
28th April 1945 -> both Mussolini and mistress executed by machine gun and 12 other fascists captured and executed
->bodies then driven to Milan and publicly displayed (hanging upside down)
When did the war in Italy end?
29th April 1945 Italy signs surrender documents
->agree to ceasefire on the 1st May 1945
What were some of the consequences of ww2 for Italy?
-Worse situation than in ww1
-wrecked infrastructure and economy, Italians lacked food and clean water
-Larger North/South divide extending to those who fought RSI vs partisans
How many Italians were dead by the end of ww2 (how many revenge killings)?
Nearly 500,000 Italians dead (17,000 antifascist fighters and 13,000 RSI soldiers)-partisan revenge killings 30,000
What did the Italians vote for on the 2nd June 1946?
Referendum on whether Italy should become a republic/new constitution
Who abdicated?
King Victor Emmanuel (extremely unpopular due to taking inadequate action)
-his son Umberto II, took his place
How many Italians voted for a referendum?
12.7 mil to 10.7 mil for a republic, all of the north voted for a republic
Who was victorious in the Constituent Assembly vote/number of seats?
-Christian democrats, 207 of the 556 seats, PCI 104 and PSI 114
-new constitution established liberal democracy with civil/ political freedom, monarchy replaced by a president and independent judiciary system
-Lateran Pacts included in the new constitution
Who did the Christian Democrats reject in their new gov?
leader = Alcide De Gaspari -> announced new gov in 1947 excluding PCI, breaking the antifascist front that had existed since 1944
When was Mussolini played to rest in his family tomb?
1st September 1957
Why was it difficult to rid Italy of fascism?
The country’s prefects, police chiefs and deputies were all former employees of the fascist gov
