Unit 3 Flashcards
When was the Fascist Youth Front formed?
December 1921 (14-17 for boys)
When was the GUF created?
March 1923 (University)
When was the Balilla created?
1923 (8-14)
In 1924 how many children were involved in Fascist Youth organisations?
3,000
What was the ONB and when was it created?
3rd April 1926, created by formal decree with the goal of providing ‘for the physical and moral benefit of youth’
What were the three subsections of the Balilla for boys?
Figli della Lupa, 6-8
Balilla, 8-14
Avanguardisti, 14-17
What were the Balilla subsections for girls?
Figlie della Lupa, 6-8
Piccole Italiane, 8-13
Giovane Italiane, 14-17
Which organisation oversaw the Youth groups?
Party to the Ministry of National Education, created in 1929
At what age was the ONB compulsory until and what did this change to?
Compulsory 6-11
Membership past 11 became compulsory in 1939
What impacts did not being part of a youth organisation have?
-Difficult to enrol in further education
-Barred from employment in the Civil Service
-A reason to suspect a family of being antifascist
What skills were boys taught in the youth groups?
-8-14 trained in moral and spiritual defence
-+14 involved in special sports and gymnastics competitions, to prepare for military life
-18 had to undergo military training
What activities were provided by the Balilla for boys?
Sport and military training, marching, wrestling, shooting practice, boxing and bomb throwing
-> perfect Balilla swore loyalty to Mussolini and dreamt of fighting and dying for his country
What activities did the Balilla provide for girls?
Gymnastics to ensure they were fit mothers and bore healthy children, educated to love Italy and Mussolini
What propaganda were Italian children taught at school?
-Patriotic lessons about classical Rome
-Encouraged to make links between Italy’s great heroes, Caesar and Mussolini
-Textbooks described the poor treatment of Italian soldiers post-ww1 fascism had saved the country from a Communist Revolution
What happened to teachers under the fascists?
Antifascist teachers removed from their jobs in the 1920s
->from 1933, compulsory to belong to the PNF
What was the role of the GUF?
University level fascist youth group…main goal was to run the Littoriali, national student games, which involved culture and debate competitions
Ran from 1934 to 1940
How many members did fascist youth organisations have in 1937?
Before membership became compulsory, 7 million members
Why did the youth organisations have so many members?
Provided enjoyable social occasions, enjoyment of being outdoors and playing sport instead of being in a classroom as well as the employment restrictions on non-members
What was the uptake of youth groups like in the South?
Many children on the rural South dd not study beyond the compulsory age of 11 and the nature of agricultural work made youth group participation harder
What did a 1937 survey reveal about girls in youth groups?
Girls were much more interested in the type of sporting activities provided to the boys than they were about becoming mothers
How was the success of youth groups revealed in the Second World War?
-Most dedicated fascist soldiers, young soldiers
-Antifascist forces predominately made up of young people
What was the OND?
The National Afterwork Organisation, replaced the worker welfare and recreation organisation in 1925
What did the OND offer?
-Bars, billiard halls, cycling groups, football teams, libraries and radios, each OND section had a clubhouse and recreation ground
-Plays and concerts, rail ticket discounts
How did the OND act as a welfare organisation?
Provided relief for workers in times of need, provided a level of social insurance
What were the most popular elements of the OND?
Subsidised holidays/excursions, mountain retreats, sporting events and holidays at the beach, all at virtually no cost
How many members did the OND have by 1939?
+4 million
What percentage of state, private sector and industrial workers were members of the OND?
80% state/private sector
40% industrial sector
What was the OND free of?
Ideology, no attempt to provide fascist education. Main aim was for workers to meet and participate in social activities
When were decrees passed to restrict freedom of the press?
1923 and 25, formalised in 1926
What freedoms were the Prefects awarded regarding the press?
-Ability to confiscate whole editions of any newspaper, magazine etc that could be judged as unfavourable to the fascist regime
-Power to suspend publication
-Replace editors
-Shut down offending newspapers completely
Which left-wing newspapers were shut down?
Avanti!, Partito Popolare and L’Unita
What were all journalists incorporated into?
A fascist union, which controlled access to jobs. Enforced a sense of self-censorship
What did Mussolini’s press officers advise on what not to publish?
Not to print stories on crime, suicides or traffic accidents, disturb the fascist image of Italy with no social problems
What was the circulation of Popolo d’Italia (fascist newspaper)?
Circulation of 100,000 compared to the 600,000 of the Corriere della Sera and Vatican newspaper, with 250,000 circulation
What percent of newspaper sales in Italy were fascist?
10%
How did Mussolini incentivise journalists printing favourable stories?
Increased subsidies
What was the Cult of Ancient Rome and what actions did it involve?
Celebrated the greatness of Ancient Rome and its leaders, Italians were heirs to the greatest empire in history
->medieval buildings knocked down, so that classical ruins could be better displayed
What happened in relation to Ancient Rome in 1937?
2,000th anniversary of Augustus Caesar, over one million people visited the exhibition on Roman history
How did fascist propaganda promote Mussolini as linked to Ancient Rome?
Mussolini as the heir of Augustus
How was sport important for propaganda?
Italian football team won the World Cup in 1934 and 1938 and the world boxing champion between 1933 and 1935
What was the Ministry of Popular Culture?
Was the Ministry of the Press up until 1935, renamed the Ministry of Popular Culture in 1937-never very sophisticated, difficulty exploiting modern mediums
What problem did the lack of mass media in the South cause?
Made the national integration of all Italians difficult and a consensus for the support of fascism difficult
What was the Cult of Il Duce?
Most powerful aspect of fascist propaganda. This was propagated through posters, cinema and radio broadcasts. Aimed to portray Mussolini as a leader of immense ability who was leading Italy to greatness
What was the slogan of the Cult?
‘Mussolini is always right’
How many pictures of Mussolini in how many poses were circulated?
30 million pictures of Il Duce
In around 2,500 different poses
How did Mussolini want to be portrayed?
Portrayed as a modern dynamic leader who was a brilliant sportsman, internationally respected statesman, superb swimmer and aviator. Who was supposed to possess ‘physical strength’, also meant to be ‘attractive’ to women, as well as seeming like a traditional family man
What was the problem with the strong image created of Mussolini?
Became the focus of the dictatorship, much more popular than the PNF and fascist ideology. Fascism as a force that was unable to survive without Mussolini
What was the National Institute of Fascist Culture?
Created in 1926, organised artists into particular associations, such as the Fascist syndicate of artists led by Antonio Maraini
-> organised cultural events, free concerts and publications, encouraged mass Italian participation in fascist culture/propaganda
What was Film City?
A PNF funded film production complex
What was the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution/when?
1932, held to celebrate a decade of fascist rule, artists were commissioned to produce artwork that represented this achievement
->helped to glorify fascism
How many people attended the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution?
+4 million people visited the exhibition
How was architecture part of fascist propaganda?
New fascist buildings were modelled after neoclassical Roman style, strengthened the connection between Ancient Rome and the new fascist regime
How was theatre/film important to propaganda?
Forzana produced three plays, Napoleon, Camillo Benso di Cavour and Julius Caesar, provided the story of three great patriotic leaders, encouraged to link to Mussolini
What were some of the popular films that glorified fascism?
Vecchia Guardia, Luciano Serra, Pilot and The Siege of Alcazar, glorified fascist achievements
What % of all box-offices takings came from Hollywood films?
87%
Why was fascist propaganda largely unsuccessful?
It was never focused in a coherent manner with a key message and it lacked an intellectual who could appeal to the population
What type of legislation did Mussolini enforce in November 1926?
Legislation to ban all other political parties and suppressed Italians that opposed the dictatorship
Who was the death penalty reintroduced for?
Anybody who tried to assassinate the King or Mussolini
What was confino and who was it used against?
The process of Special Tribunals sending political dissidents into exile in the South. Waged against Italians who were deemed potentially dangerous antifascists
-> devastating for the families of those exiled, who were discriminated against, dangerous to employ anyone who had returned from Confino
When were the political police introduced and what did they do?
1926, led by Bocchini. Successful in infiltrating and breaking up antifascist organisations. Had a considerable network of spies in Italy and abroad
What did the political police organise in 1937?
June 1937, worked with SIM (military spies) to assassinate antifascists Carlo and Nello Rosselli
What was OVRA, who was it formed?
Formed 1927 by Bocchini and spied across Italy. Infiltrated universities, businesses and fascist unions
How many informers did OVRA have?
5,000 across Italy
Who were the special reserve service?
Italian mail examined and phone calls listened to
How many files did Bocchini hold on people?
130,000
How many cases were prosecuted by the Special Tribunals, imposed how much jail time?
13,547 cases and 27,742 years of jail
How many Italians were sent to Confino?
10,000
How many death sentences were there during the fascist ruling and what does this indicate?
9, success of Bocchini in ensuring that there was little serious opposition to the fascist regime
When did the Cult of Il Duce reach its height?
1936
How many Jews were there in Italy?
45,000 (less than 1%)
What were the elements of the 1938 anti-Jewish legislation?
-Forbade Italian Jews from marrying ‘pure’ Italians
-Holding public office jobs such as teaching
-Owning +50 hectares of land
-Run a business with +100 employees
-Employ ‘pure’ Italians as servants
How many jews left the country post-1938?
6,000
->Jewish businesses shut down, Jewish students expelled, Jewish university lecturers lost jobs
Why did Mussolini pursue anti-semitic policy?
Far-right dictatorships in Germany, Austria, Hungary and Romania may have influenced this
->Wanted to create a more militaristic and radicalised society that could be united by their hatred for external and internal enemies - mirroring German totalitarian state
->needed a racial ideology that would make them feel superior
What was the ‘reform of customs’?
Ideological campaign
-Civil servants made to wear uniform
-Army to adopt the passo Romano (goose step), witnessed in Germany
-Forbidden from shaking hands, had to perform the ‘Roman Salute’
How was the ‘reform of customs’ received by the Italian people?
-Ridiculed and seen as pointless/ridiculous
-Most chose to ignore
How did the Italians respond to anti-semitic decrees?
Resented, no history of Italian anti-semitism
->condemned by the Pope, viewed by many as Italy’s growing weakness
Why was Mussolini’s attempt to unite the Italian people in a radical fashion a failure?
Lost him the support of the conservative elites of the Church, business and judiciary, relied on for power -> made many Italians question the direction of fascist policy
When was Italy a constitutional monarchy until?
September 1943
Why did Mussolini have to compromise with the monarchy?
Antimonarchy policies were a significant block to him becoming PM
->agreement with the King helped Mussolini consolidate power through gaining acceptance of the fascist dictatorship
->gained the loyalty of armed forces and state administration who retained respect towards the King
What power was the Fascist Grand Council awarded in 1928?
December 1928, gained the constitutional right to limit the King’s power to nominate future PMs and able to advise the King on any future royal succession
What was the First Marshal of the Empire/when was it introduced?
March 1938, highest rank in the military hierarchy, given to the King and Mussolini, undermining the King’s power
What role, that rivalled the king, did Mussolini take on in 1940?
June 1940, Mussolini became the supreme military commander and took complete control of the military
What did the King show no opposition to?
Made little effort to prevent or minimise the erosion of Italy’s constitutional democracy, remained subservient to Mussolini
-> no effort to oppose the implementation of racist and unpopular anti-semitic decrees
What was the relationship between the King and Mussolini like?
A political balancing act that suited both of them in respect to the positions they held throughout the fascist dictatorship
Which conservative elites were particularly important to Mussolini?
Army, judiciary and the civil service
How did the judiciary function under Mussolini?
Largely unchanged and judges retained independence from the party, many joined the PNF to maintain their positions
How did the army function under Mussolini?
Allowed it to run independently, although he was the Minister of War, left running to under-secretaries (generals/admirals)
What changes to gov administration were there under Mussolini?
Little change for the conservative elites
->some civil servants removed due to antifascist ideology, most kept their jobs
Who were the top administrative posts held by?
Held by career civil servants, not regional fascist leaders (Ministry of Corporations, all senior staff civil servants)
What was the podesta?
Given to the traditional conservative elite, powerful municipal positions held by elderly Conservatives and in the South
What position did Mussolini take on in December 1925?
Mussolini = head of government, only accountable to the King and not Parliament
->only Mussolini could initiate legislation
What reform of Parliament took place in May 1928?
Parliament to be made up of 400 deputies, chosen by the Fascist Grand Council from a list of 1,000 candidates nominated by fascist confederations
What change was made to the Fascist Grand Council in 1928?
December 1928, Grand Council’s role was formalised in the constitution as the most important legal body in the state
How much power did the Fascist Grand Council actually have?
Had little influence, Mussolini retained power
->had no consultation on major policies such as the accommodation with the Catholic Church in 1929 or Italy’s entrance into ww2
->central power was Mussolini’s and the FGC barely met
What did Mussolini do to the Senate?
Mussolini left the Senate alone, members appointed for life by the King
->Mussolini accommodating to the existing political elite to cement power
Who comprised the Senate in 1932?
148 senators were not members of the PNF
What was a ‘prefect’ and what powers did they hold?
Highest state authority in each Italian province (mostly held by career civil servants)
-> wide-ranging job, involved organising the police, ensuring censorship of the local press and implementing the suppression of any antifascist activity, reporting on the local fascist branches
How were local councils ran?
Run by the podesta, who were elected by the prefect
->usually given to conservative elite and not fascists
What did local government mean for Mussolini?
Largely out of the control of the fascist party, in the hands of the conservative elite
->however prefects/podesta owed their positions to Mussolini, therefore he was able to strengthen his personal dictatorship at the expense of the PNF
What did Farinacci do in 1925?
Purged the party of those who did not agree with Mussolini’s political direction
How many liberals were murdered by fascist violence squads in October 1925?
Eight in Florence
Why was Farinacci dismissed?
He was an extremist who continued to encourage squad violence, which was becoming considerably unpopular
Who replaced Farinacci?
Augusto Turati
How many hard line fascists were purged from the party?
50,000-60,000 members
How many fascists voluntarily left the party in 1929?
110,000
How many were purged under Turati’s successor, Giuriati, in 1931?
120,000
How many new members replaced the fascists purged under Giuriati?
800,000 (most of these were clerks, civil servants, and white-collar workers, working in public services and local gov
When did PNF membership become compulsory and who to?
1933, public service and local government workers
Who was appointed Minister of the Interior, when and who did this appease?
Luigi Federzoni, who was a nationalist
->appointed 17th June 1924, helped to placate the old conservative elite
What were some of the roles of ex-nationalists within the PNF?
-Cantalupo and Bodrero played a role in influencing the direction of fascist educational policy
-Ciano = minister of communications (1924-34)
What influence did Nationalism have on Mussolini’s policy in the 1930s?
The concern of nationalists that Italy had a great history and little else was taken on by Mussolini, Italy should understand its military power in the present not the past
Who were some of the initial groups of economic interest to Mussolini?
-Focused on placating the large economic interest groups (Fiat and Pirelli)
-Economic interest of small shop owners also protected and a licensing system that protected them from larger retailers introduced
What was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact?
October 1925, industrialists recognise the fascist syndicates as the only representative body for Italian workers -> made Catholic, Socialist and Communist trade unions irrelevant
What was the Rocco Law/when?
April 1926, allowed the syndicates some rights of representation and the compulsory arbitration of disputes concerning workers’ pay and conditions at special labour tribunals
->strikes, go slows and lockouts were banned
Who did the government favour in business policies?
Favoured policies that propped up and supported big businesses, encouraging further wage cuts for workers
-> favoured the likes of Montecatini and ILVA (chemicals and steel)
What rate were wages at from 1927 onwards?
Wages reduced below the cost of living from 1927 onwards
Who did the appointment of De’Stefani as minister of finance appease?
Italy’s business groups (he was a conservative economics professor)
What policies did De’Stefani pursue?
-Little gov interference, focused on balancing gov budget
-Privatised telephone and other public sector industry
-Deregulated the economy and cut protective tariffs
What happened to the budget between 1921-4?
Achieved a budget surplus
What was byproduct of De’Stefani’s policies?
-Agricultural groups unhappy
-Inflationary problems
-Pressure on the lira
Who took over from De’Stefani in 1925?
Giuseppe Volpi
What was Volpi’s economic policy like?
More regulated, state-run economy, with greater personal influence from Mussolini
What/when was the ‘Battle for Lira’?
Launched in August 1926, first of Volpi’s policy
What was the value of the lira to the pound between 1922 and 26?
1922-90 lira to a pound
1926-150 lira to a pound
Why did Mussolini therefore create the ‘Battle for Lira’?
-Concerns regarding an inflationary crisis for Italy
-Tied the strength of the Lira to the strength of the fascsist regime itself (‘fate of the fascist regime is tied to the fate of the lira’)
What was the lira fixed at in December 1927?
19 to a dollar
92.46 to pound
What were the consequences of fixing the lira?
-Gov forced to introduce deinflationary measures (massive price reductions and cuts to worker’s wages)
-export industries lost out, Italian exports overvalued abroad
What was the ‘Battle for Grain’ meant to represent?
The will of Mussolini and his power to uphold Italian economic pride
What is the charter of labour and when?
1927, asserts workers’ rights will be established through mixed corporations, which would guarantee workers’ rights in employment, social insurance and welfare
What is the National Council of Corporations?
Seven large corporations, to represent the main parts of the economy
What was the job of the corporations (more introduced in 1934)?
-Fixed the price of goods and services
-settled industry disputes
-regulated apprenticeships
-advised the government on economic issues
-helped to produce a more productive gov
What, simply, was the National Council of Corporations, and the 22 mixed corporations?
Propaganda
How did Mussolini use the ‘Corporate State’ as propaganda?
-Provided jobs for loyal fascists
-Proved Mussolini had overcame the problems of class conflict
-M had constructed a ‘third way’ between capitalism and communism that harmonised industrial relations
How successful was Italy’’s response to the GD?
Arguably successful compared to other European countries
What did the gov cut workers’ wages by in Nov 1930?
12%
The gov also encouraged price fixing and cartelisation in 1930, what is cartelisation?
Forced mergers by the gov, larger firms taking over small businesses in the same industry
-> this reduced competition during the GD and prevented the larger scale closing of smaller businesses - employment stayed stable
How else did the gov prevent unemployment during the GD?
Large public work schemes -> road and house building and the electrification of railways
-> welfare also increased
What did gov spending on road building increase by? How many kms of railway were electrified?
-> doubled
-> 5,000
What was the IMI?
Protected Italian businesses from collapse through ensuring major banks loaned millions of lire
-> provided credit to banks to ensure they would not collapse
What was the IRI?
Gov bought up shares in the banking industry and commerce to support economy and ensure the companies did not go bankrupt and collapse
-> then provided education on new management techniques and gave financial and technical assistance
-> once healthy gov sold shares into private ownership
What were the three driving factors in Mussolini’s quest for autarky?
-Decline in Italian overseas trade (overvalued lira and GD)
-Sanctions placed on Italy in 1936 in response to the militaristic actions in Africa
-Prep for war
What type of agreement was Italian trade conducted under?
Bilateral -> ensured that the value of imports strictly matched the value of exports
-> ensured that Italy could minimise and control imports and wouldn’t have to use foreign currency/gold reserves to pay
Why did Mussolini devalue the lira in October in 1936?
Increase control on foreign currency and import licensing system -> boosted Italy’s exports
What did the gov stockpile?
Agricultural products such as wool and cereal -> boosted Italian stocks and guaranteed a consistent supply
How much did gov spending on autarkic measures increase by?
30 bill lire - 1934
60 billion lire - 1938
When was the Battle for Births introduced?
May 1927
What was the aim of the Battle for Births?
By the 1950s, have a population of at least 60 million (population of 40 million and low birth rate = detrimental to country’s attempt to become world power)
-> larger population = increased military strength, more competition for employment (wages and labour costs low)
Economic incentives provided to have more children?
-tax reductions/loans for families with lots of children
-prizes for big families
-1928, employed men with 7+ children given tax concessions
-Bachelor’s tax increased burden on single men
What was banned to increase birth rate?
All forms of birth control
When was the Battle for Grain?
1925
What was the aim of Battle for Grain?
Italy self-sufficient in grain
What were some tactics used to reduce foreign grain consumption?
-Wheat tariffs, increased in 1928-9
-Propaganda campaign aiming to free Italy from the ‘slavery of foreign bread’
-Annual wheat growing competitions
-Farmers subsidised by gov to grow grains
-Educated on new farming techniques and provided fertilisers, new farm machinery and more resistant seeds
How much did Italy’s grain production rise by?
50%
What was Mussolini’s policy of ‘ruralisation’/’ruralism’?
Mussolini believed that Italy’s declining birth rate was linked to the increase in urbanisation -> had to protect Italian peasants
When/what was the ‘empty the cities’ campaign?
1928 -> prevented internal migration from Italy’s rural areas to cities
What was the bonifica integrale?
Aspect of the ‘empty the cities’ scheme
-Marsh draining
-irrigation
-road building
-house building
How many hectares of land did the gov say they would provide for Italian peasants?
475 million hectares
Failures of Battle for Lira?
caused serious deflation and hampered export industry
Failures of the Corporate State?
-vast, expensive bureaucracy never achieved alleged aims
-industrial employers never serious about representing workers
-all major decisions made by mussolini
Failures of schemes in response to GD?
-expensive
-Italy’s budget deficit grew rapidly
-foreign reserves depleted
Failure of increased welfare spending (6.9 -> 20.6%)?
taxes raised and forced loan of 5% of value of house had to be paid
failures of IRI?
-restricted innovation and rationalisation of the economy
-kept prices high
Failures of autarky?
-Impossible for Italy who lacks raw materials
-Goods cheaper to import (increased national deficit)
Increase in wheat production?
5.39 million tonnes -> 7.27 million (1925-35)
Failures of the battle for grain?
-valuable exports such as olive trees, citrus and vineyards were cleared to grow wheat
-cattle and sheep farming reduced significantly (Italian diets poor)
-Lack of competition increased the price of grain and bread
How much extra did families have to pay for food costs (due to battle for grain/autarkic measures)?
400 lire extra per year
How much of the 475 mil hectares was improved and how many peasants were given land?
5% improved -> only 10,000 peasants given land
Successes of pontine marsh draining?
-reduced malaria by 50%
-considerable public work scheme = increased employment
How many people left rural areas/agricultural work?
500,000 left rural areas -> +50% not involved in agricultural work
What proportion of the Italian workforce were women?
Fascist Italy had highest proportion of married women in employment than any other European country
What was ‘The Cardinal’s Mistress’?
M’s book which portrayed the Church as a place of hypocrisy, violence and sexual activity
Why did M’s anger towards then Church originate in ww1?
Pope Benedict’s attempts to end ww1 with the Peace Note of August 1917 -> angered M who believed this had spread pacifism
Why did Mussolini change his policy towards the Church in the New Programme?
a force that could be used as a means of driving unity and nationalism
->’only universal values that radiate from Rome are those of the Vatican’
How did Pope Pius XI improve Catholic relations?
Concerned with the threat of Communism -> more willing to work with Mussolini -> fascism = only way of saving Italy from the threat of communism
What were some of M’s religious concessions?
-religious education reintroduced in secondary school education.
-crucifixes restored to public buildings
-married wife in the Church and baptised his three children
Why did Mussolini bail out a bank and ban freemasonry?
jan 1923 M agreed to bail out Bank of Rome due to Church’s significant stake in it -> freemasonry against Catholic teachings
During what crisis did the Pope fully pledge his support?
Matteoti
When were the Lateran Pacts signed/what were they?
11th February 1929… was a treaty, financial convention and concordat
What were the terms of the Lateran Pacts?
-Solved territorial issues -> Pope gained sovereign state with 44 hectares of land (Vatican City)
-750 million lire and 1,000 million lire in bonds
-Catholicism = sole religion of Italy, Church marriages given legal validity
-Catholic Action allowed to continue
How many members did Catholic Action have in 1929?
Over 1 million members
Were the Lateran Pacts a success for Mussolini?
Seen to be the man who had finally solved the Roman Question that had plagued Church-state relations for over 50 years
-> gained him prestige domestically and abroad
What was the electoral law introduced by Mussolini in 1928?
A plebiscite would be held no later than April 1929 -> Mussolini could claim a broad consensus for his rule
What did the Church advertise (and in Catholic Action)?
Mobilise the Catholic vote for the fascists -> urged through Catholic Action for people to vote ‘yes’ to the plebiscite
Participation and result of the plebiscite?
8.63 million voters participated (90% of the electorate) -> plebiscite voted yes to by 98% of the electorate
Biggest point of contention between fascist gov and Church?
Catholic Action (250,000 members)
Why did the contention over Catholic Action worsen in 1930-31?
Giurati = new Part Secretary and Scorza in charge of youth organisations -> hardline attitudes
-> accused them of organising sport (forbidden), being led by former PPI leaders and acting as a sanctuary for antifascists
How did the Pope respond to the Fascist violence directed towards Catholic action?
Responded with a strong encyclical entitled ‘we have no need’
-> said that the state was ‘stealing’ children from Christ
What were Catholic relations like by the summer 1931?
Good relations were beneficial to both -> by the end of summer they had come to a deal
-> Catholic Action had to confine themselves to recreational and educational aspects
What did Mussolini and the Pope agree on in 1932?
Feb 1932 -> Mussolini visited Pope and they confirmed their mutual views on societal and gender values, as well as foreign policy towards the Soviet Union
How many members did Catholic Action have in 1939?
388,000 members
What activities did the Church condemn, promoted by Fascist Youth?
-Physical activities for girls, Church felt it was contrary to public decency
-Fascists saw brothels as natural part of male culture
Why did Church/state relations worsen again in 1938?
Mussolini’s growing anti-semitism
-> Pope was going to write letter condemning him
