Unit 2 Flashcards
What were some of the problems that faced the Italian government at the end of the First World War?
-Ex-soldiers felt betrayed and humiliated National greatness hadn’t been achieved
-campaign against Austria had been sustained through foreign loans and printing of more money
-economy was suffering debt and inflation
-those returning from war were also pushing for a land reform -growing divide between those returning from war and those who had helped at home with the war effort
What was Italy’s treatment at the Paris peace Conference in Versailles in January 1919?
->Orlando argued Italy should be given all territory it had been promised in 1915 Treaty of London, plus the port of Fiume and the Croatian Coast
->Powers at conference did not feel Italy was deserving of status
Which territories did the Allies refuse Italy?
Dodecanese Islands, parts of the Balkans and Fiume
-> Orlando pleaded to receive Dalmatia
What did Orlando do at the Conference?
Walked out
What was the consequence of Italy walking out of the Paris peace Conference?
-other powers talk all of Germany’s Italian colonies for themselves
-when Orlando returned in May his proposals were ignored
When was Orlando forced to resign?
June 1919
What land did Italy receive from the Treaty of London?
-Trent and Trieste
-Istria
-Northern Dalmatia
What land did Italy not receive post-ww1?
Fiume and territory in Africa
How many Italian soldiers died in ww1?
650,000 soldiers
What actions did Francesco Nitti take that were unpopular but maintained Italy’s relationship with the allies?
-allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia
-Fiume to become a neutral city under protection of LoN
-reduced military spending
Why was Nitti called Cagoia?
Means coward -> issued amnesty to Italian soldiers who had deserted
When was the occupation of Fiume?
12th September 1919-25th December 1920
Who led the occupation of Fiume and with how many men?
Gabriele D’Annunzio led 2,000 men (ex-soldiers, nationalists and patriots)
Som of Italy’s economic problems post-ww1?
-Millions of soldiers were demobilised, flooding the job market -inflation was at a high level
-lira had collapsed in value
-middle-class Italians saw their savings wiped out and wages and pensions rapidly declining
When did the Occupation of Fiume end?
eventually D’Annunzio and his small army were removed by the Italian Navy on Christmas Day 1920
What was unemployment in Nov 1919?
2 million
Events of the Occupation of Fiume?
seized the Port of Fiume without a fight -> Italian government failed to act for 15 months
Which two major munitions companies collapsed/when?
Ansaldo and Ilva collapsed in 1921, this caused a banking crisis, as one of Italy’s major banks was closely tied to Ansaldo
What was the Biennio Rosso?
Translates to the ‘Two Red Years’-between 1919 and 1920 where Italy’s strikes/protests were at their peak
What was the Biennio Rosso inspired by?
Russian revolution
What did the membership of Socialist Unions increase by?
membership rose from 250,000-1918 to 2 million by 1920
What were some of the strikes carried out in this period?
Railway strikes - January 1920
Telegraph worker strikes - April/September 1920
Army troop strikes - July 1920
When was the largest strike of the Biennio Roso period?
September 1920 with over 400,000 workers taking over factories and flying red flags for communism
Why was there unrest within the Italian countryside post-ww1?
-Southern Peasants who had in fought war not receiving the land reforms promised
-Seized the land of absent land owners
-memberships of rural/farming unions increased
Which voting reform was made during the elections of 1919?
-reform allowed all Italians who had served at the Front and any male over 21 to vote
-method of voting was also changed to proportional representation
How much ddi the electorate increase by in 1919?
11 million
What was the PPI?
Partito Popolare Italiano -> formed in 1919
->led by a priest and policy pushed for Catholic values
Who won the most votes in the 1919 election?
PSI won with 32% = 156 deputies in Parliament
PPI won next largest amount of votes, with 101 seats
Why did the PPI and PSI not govern after 1919 election?
Neither party was willing to work as a coalition/neither won a majority, so the Old Liberals remained in power
When did Nitti’s gov fall?
June 1920
When was the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’ formed?
23rd March 1919
What was the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’?
->organisation of around 20 representatives of ex-servicemen’s leagues, by Mussolini, to form the national organisation of ex-soldiers
->Mussolini wanted to establish a new movement driven by ex-soldiers
What was ‘trincerocrazia’?
A feeling of being linked through war consciousness gained while fighting in the trenches
What did Mussolini feel post-war Italy was divided by?
Divided between those who had fought and those who stayed at home
-> trinceristi - the retuned soldiers who had the strength and moral right to lead a new Italy
What was Mussolini’s aim with Fasci di Combattimento?
He hoped to destroy the liberal order and create a war consciousness that would rule Italy
What was the fascist’s initial policy/ideology?
-Anticlerical
-called for an end to the monarchy, formation of a republic
-8 hour working day for women and younger Italians,
-nationalisation of the arms industry
-progressive taxation and confiscation of profits made by large companies during war
How many people attended the first meeting of the fascists and how many members did ti have by June?
50 -> 3000 members by June
Why were the fascists known as blackshirts?
Wore a black uniform in the war (the arditi) and members of fascist party adopted this symbolism
What were the squadrismo/squadristi?
Small military units or squads who answered the socialist threat with extreme violence
What did the squadristi do in April 1919?
15th April 1919 -> squad of 200-300 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down the Milan offices of Avanti! -> three socialists and one fascist were killed
How did the Fascist party do in the 1919 elections?
Gained <5,000 votes and gained no seats, socialists paraded a coffin around Milan (death of Mussolini’s political career)
Who were the ras?
The violence squads’ commanding officer
What were the symbols of the Squadristi?
A revolver and a mangello (club) as well as the black shirt
How many were killed in the first five months of fascist violence?
1921 - 200 people killed and 1000 wounded (victims were beaten and forced to drink castor oil)
-targeted key PSI figures
-the violence was supported/encouraged, perceived as the fascists defeating the fascists, popular in the countryside
How did violence impact the May 1921 election campaign?
-Police stood by and allowed the attacks
-squads were used to attack socialist party meetings and intimidate voters
-police lent vehicles and the army gave weapons
-Italian judiciary also demonstrated leniency
What was the result of the May 1921 election/significance?
PSI achieved the highest vote however it was a breakthrough for the fascists, won 7% of the vote and 35 parliamentary seats
-> gave Mussolini a new respectability/authority, legitimised fascism
->Mussolini benefited from immunity to prosecution as a peer
What was the Fascist’s New Programme?
May 1920, New Programme was adopted -> more conservative and right-wing, more pro-business
-promise to sell nationally owned businesses to private investors
-increasingly militaristic tone
-compulsory military service and unification of irredente lands
When did the Fascists movement become an official political party?
October 1921 = Patriot Nazionale Fascista (PNF)
->PNF founded local branches and attempted to recruit more respectable members
What did the formation of the PNF allow Mussolini to do?
Centralise his control
How many members did the PNF have by the end of 1921?
200,000
How did the PNF’s appeal increase/statistic to support this?
-PNF’s appealed strongly to the urban middle class, professional white collar workers and small businesses owners (due to the fear of socialist revolution, but also increased taxes that PSI would want to implement)
-Middle and upper class landowners also supported the PNF due to the PSI’ desire for a land reform (PNF=protection)
-Financial backing from industrialists who wanted to lessen union power
-PNF=new dynamic political force for many
What led to Nitti’s resignation on the 9th June 1920?
Lingering situation in Fiume and strike action he sought a solution to the 1920 strikes by striking a compromise, refused to use violence against workers, by the 25th September 1920 the strikes had ended, resounding anger due to the opinion that Giolitti had given in to the demands of the strikers
Who replaced Nitti?
Giolitti
How did Giolitti end the 1920 strike?
Sought a compromise with the workers -> pressured Italy’s banks to withdraw support for banks that would not negotiate with striking workers
->he refused to use violence against the strikers
When did the strike end/ the response?
25th September 1920
-> considerable anger from the middle classes, industrialists, nationalists, landowners and catholics that Giolitti had ‘given in’ to worker demands
When did the PSI split/how did it become weakened?
January 1921 -> more radical members of PSI split to form the PCI (with support from Russia) -> more radical aims (revolution) and end capitalist system… closely aligned with the Bolsheviks, the split weakened the PSI
What did the formation of the PCI signal for some?
For middle classes and industrialists, PCI was proof that Italy was on the verge of a revolution (similar to Russia in 1917)
When/how did the PCI/PSI put pressure on the political system?
backing call for 24 hour general strike across Italy, most workers didn’t support move
How did the liberals lose the 1921 elections?
Giolitti tried to absorb Fascists by offering them a place on his national bloc, trasformismo rendered useless by more progressive/reformed politics
What were the results of the 1921 elections?
123 socialists, 15 communists, 107 PPI and 35 Fascist deputies, Giolitti chose to resign
Which two PMs followed Giolitti?
Bonomi -> Facta
When did Mussolini call for the end to fascist violence/why?
July 1921
->communist threat faded, voters would begin to question why fascist violence continued
When did Mussolini sign the Pact of Pacification?
August 1921
What was the Pact of Pacification?
Signed with the socialist trade union, brought Italy the peace that it wanted -> call for fascist violence to end also centralised Mussolini’s power again (asserting power over ras)
How was the end to fascist violence reacted to by the fascists?
three most powerful ras bosses Grandi, Balbo and Farinacci condemned pact and called for the deal with the hated socialists to end
When did Mussolini resign as leader, due to response to the Pact?
Resigned on the 18th August 1921 -> politically manoeuvring as the ras were unable to then organise themselves
When/why was Mussolini reinstated as the leader of the PNF?
Grandi was offered a new role which led to him pledging his support for Mussolini
-> and at PNF conference in Nov 1921, fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted Mussolini to be their leader
Why was Mussolini essential for the fascist party?
Without Mussolini the party lacked vision, charisma and unity and nobody of the same stature was willing to take the position
-> Grandi and Balbo had approached d’Annunzio but he refused
What concession was Mussolini forced to accept in order to become leader again?
Drop the Pact of Pacification, not difficult as he realised the best means of gaining power was through fascist violence
How did the fascist violence squads change from 1921?
Formally reorganised 1921
->spring 1922 violence expanded… Blackshirts attacked Socialist controlled local councils
When did Bonomi’s gov collapse?
February 1922 -> replaced by Facta (weak and complacent)
What had the squadristi achieved by September 1922?
squads had taken over areas around Rome-murdered socialist leaders and supporters, burning offices and forcing left-wing councils to resign
How many members did the PNF have by 1922 and in fascist trade union?
320,000 members and nearly 500,000 had joined fascist trade unions
What was Mussolini’s ‘dual policy’?
Pursued through September and October 1922
->pursued a moderate conservative policy, backing monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing budget alongside enabling/continuing the black shirt violence (gaining power through both)
What did Mussolini do on the 24th October 1922?
Gave a speech to the squadristi in Naples -> ‘either we are allowed to govern or we will seize power by marching on Rome’ (facing increased pressure form the ras to storm the capital)
What happened on the 26th October 1922?
Squadristi occupied gov buildings and telephone exchanges
->Facta decided to take action requested the King proclaim Martial Law and use army to crush uprising
What happened on the 28th October 1922?
King informed and agrees to use martial law, changes mind the same morning
How did King Emmanuel III enable the fascist takeover?
lacked confidence in Facta -> persuaded by Salandra (who wanted to form a new gov) not to sign the decree
->Mussolini hinted King’s cousin, Duke of Aosta and fascist supporter, could take over if King did not comply
Who did the King offer the position of PM to, after Facta resigned?
Salandra, could create a coalition with Mussolini
->Mussolini declined-Orlando and Giolitti were also candidates
When was Mussolini offered the position of PM?
29th October 1922 -> Mussolini had gained constitutionally
(needed March on Rome to seem cause of him becoming PM)
When did Mussolini become the PM of Italy?
30th October 1922 -> sworn in with 50,000 fascists
When did Mussolini have a victory parade/how was this portrayed by the PNF?
31st October -> state sponsored books would later write about civil war and the death of 3000 fascist martyrs
What problem did Mussolini face once he became PM?
Only 35 fascist deputies in Parliament… PSI dominated with 123 seats
Who did the cabinet consist of when Mussolini entered gov?
cabinet consisted of four liberals, two PPI members, one ANI member and two members of the military
What positions did Mussolini appoint himself as upon entering gov?
Mussolini appointed himself foreign minister and minister of the interior - appointed Alberto De’Stefani as the finance minister
How did Mussolini increase the support of the Church?
Increased clerical pay an reinstated crucifixes in schools
When did the PNF absorb the ANI?
officially absorbed in February 1923
When did Sturzo, PPI leader, resign/why?
July 1923, due to increased integration with the PNF
Who became the Minister of work and welfare?
Stefano Cavazzoni (PPI)
What did Mussolini announce in his maiden speech on 16th Nov 1922?
required a year of emergency powers -> warned deputies that he had 300,000 violent young men waiting
By how many votes did Parliament agree to grant Emergency Powers?
306 votes to 116 against
Which rival organisation did Mussolini create in 1922?
December -> created ‘Fascist Grand Council’
-> key fascists appointed such as Balbo, Bianchi and De Bono
Why was the Fascist Grand Council significant for Mussolini?
helped Mussolini overcome his weak position in cabinet and undermined the liberal gov -> had sole ability to appoint Council’s members, creating centralised power
When was the MSVN created?
January 1923 by the Fascist Grand Council
What was the MSVN?
MSVN absorbed all squadristi and formalised their role as a party based paramilitary force -> supported the army and police in defending the fascist revolution
How many members did the MSVN have?
300,000 -> had to pledge allegiance to the fascist state
How did the party’s size change post March on Rome?
doubled = 783,000 members
What was the Acerbo Law?
Proposed 2/3 of parliamentary seats would go to the party that won more than 25% the vote
Who opposed and supported the Acerbo Law?
-PCI and PSI opposed
-Giolitti, Church and King were all in favour
-PPI abstained from voting
(Fascists applied pressure by staging demonstrations in Tuscany and Umbria)
When was the election called for, post-Acerbo Law?
6th April 1924
Who was killed in the campaign for the April 1924 election?
PSI candidate Antonio Piccinini was murdered
Electoral turnout and results of the election?
->electoral turnout was 64%
->PNF won 66.3% of the vote, increased number of deputies from 35 to 275
->PSI, PCI and PPI still held 80 seats collectively
What happened upon Parliament’s re-opening?
30th May 1924, Matteotti, leader of the PCI gave a speech denouncing the fascists’ violence in the election campaign, Mussolini was concerned about the rumours that Matteotti had amassed a file on fascist party corruption
When was Matteotti kidnapped?
10th June 1924, body was found on the 16th August
Who was responsible for Matteotti’s kidnapping and murder?
Number plate of car was spotted, belonged to Cesare Rossi, Mussolini’s press secretary, leader of the kidnapping Amerigo Domino was arrested on the 12th June
What events took place in the days following Matteotti’s kidnapping
11th to 13th June, Mussolini was unsure of what to do
What took place on the 13th June 1924?
100 antifascist deputies left Parliament and established their own Parliament on the Aventine Hill calling it the Aventine Secession
How did the Aventine Secession aid Mussolini?
Decisive break that Mussolini needed, absence of 100 antifascist deputies meant it became easier for Mussolini to pass legislation through Parliament, Aventine Secession hampered by ideological differences
Who did Mussolini give the positions of interior and justice minister to/why?
Luigi Federzoni and Alfredo Rocco, nationalists which therefore reassured the political elite
When did Mussolini announce the beginning of a fascist dictatorship?
3rd January 1925, in a key speech and on the 12th January he formed a new cabinet
Who was appointed as the new PNF secretary in 1925?
Farinacci
How much did Farinacci increase membership by?
600,000 -> 938,000
What happened to ras/squadristi in 1925?
October -> FGC created a motion which made all ras disband and enlist in the militia, Mussolini then gained military support
How did Mussolini increase his military support?
by increasing officer and general’s pay and appointing the conservative monarchist, Badoglio, as the chief of general staff
When was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact?
2nd October 1925
What was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact?
established the official fascist unions as the only representatives of Italy’s workers, took power from the Catholic and Socialist Unions
Who plotted to assassinate Mussolini in 1925/when?
4th August 1925, socialist deputy Tito Zamboni was arrested for allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini, this led to the banning of his political party (the PSU)
What did Zamboni’s plot lead to the implementation off?
A new press law, all journalism had to be approved and supervised by the PNF, gov could now also sack any public employee whose actions in or out of work was hostile to the PNF
When did Mussolini change his title and what to?
December 1925, Mussolini became Head of Government and Duce of Fascism
What ability was taken from Parliament in 1926?
January 1926, ability to remove PM through vote of no confidence was removed
When was Mussolini able to rule by decree?
January 1926
What did another assassination attempt in 1926 lead to?
31st October 1926, all political parties were banned
What was the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State?
set up for the prosecution of antifascists with no right to appeal
How many antifascists left Italy in 1926?
10,000
What was Mussolini’s final move in creating a fascist state?
abolished elected local gov officials and replaced mayors with a new position , podesta -> would be appointed by local prefects (appointed by Mussolini), and Turati asserted that in any conflict between the prefects and the ras, the prefects would take precedence
