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Anatomy > Unit 4 🧠🥬🌱🥟 > Flashcards

Unit 4 🧠🥬🌱🥟 Flashcards

1
Q

Reduction

V

Oxidation

A

Reduced mean you add electrons

Oxidized-means you loose electrons

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2
Q

Highest energía bond

A

C-H bonds found in lipids and sugars and protiens

O-H low energy

Ch and oh and co2 and h2o

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3
Q

Bioenergetics

A

How energy is transferred Through chemical reactions in living things

Anabolic - build up

Catabolic - tear things down

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4
Q

Metabolism

A

All catabolic and anabolic process that a cell is engaged in

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5
Q

ATP

A

Energy source

Releases one phosphate to phosphorylate something else

Kinase is used to remove pi from atp

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6
Q

NAD+ and FAD

A

Electron carriers

They are reduced to NADH and FADH2

Nad -
Niacin (b3) ring and dehydrogenase enzyme which removes 2 hydrogens one as hydride h- a hydrogen with 2 electrons and a hydrogen cation H+ (no electrons) the hydride bonds to NAD and the cation is released

Fad+ 
Riboflavin 
Dehydrogenase removes two hydrogens 
Each a proton with one electron 
They both bind to FAD creating FADH2

Both processes are reverse able

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7
Q

Glycolysis (simple summary)

A

Breakdown glucose in cytoplasm
Aerobic and anaerobic

Takes 6 carbon glucose
To 2 3carbon pyruvate

Energy is either lost as heat or captured as atp or NADH

Net yield

ATP- 2
NADH- 2
Pyruvate-2

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8
Q

Glycogenesis

A

When there is too much glucose

It turns into glycogen and is stored for later

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9
Q

Glycolysis step 1

A 
Glucose 
|
|
ATP—> ADP
|
|
Glucose 6 phosphate

Once it enters the cell
Keeps it from leaving

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10
Q

Glycolysis step 2

A 
Glucose 6 phosphate 
|
|
ATP ——> ADP
|
|
Fructose 1, 6 phosphate

Confirmations all change
Another phosphate is attached

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11
Q

Glycolysis step 3

A 
Fructose 1,6 phosphate
               |
               |
              / \
             /.  \
            /.    \
     DHAP—> glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

(2) glyceraldehyde 3 pho’s

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12
Q

Glycolysis step 4

A

Happens 2x

Glyceraldehyde 
|
|
Pi —>
|
|
NAD+—> NADH
|
| 
(1,3 bisphosphoglycerate)

Removes 2 hydrogens for NADH

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13
Q

Glycolysis step 5

A 
Happens 2x
(1-3 bisphosphoglycerate)
|
| 
Adp —->ATP
|
|
|
ADP —> aTP
|
|
Puruvate

Substrate level phosphorylation is the transfer of pi from 3carbon molecule to adp to form ATP

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14
Q

Anaerobic fermentation

A 
NAD+  
                             ^
Pyruvate ————|—————> Lactate
                             |
                         NADH

Hypoxic lacks o2

Lactate is not poison and is recycled quickly
Does not cause pain

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15
Q

Anaerobic metabolism

A

If oxygen is not present allows NADH to become NAD+ again so glycolysis can continue

Produces lactic acid

Very fast but not very effective

Good for sudden bursts of energy but can’t be maintained for long!

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16
Q

Aerobic metabolism

A

If oxygen is available
This happens 2x

              NADH            CoA Pyruvate ——|——-|———|——- acetylcoa 
                  ^.         Co2
                 Nad+

Then moves to matrix of mitochondria
Removes 2 protons and 2 electrons
3carbon to 2 carbon

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17
Q

Citric acid cycle aka krebs (overview)

A

Series of reactions the completes the catabolic pathway of the gluecose

Stores energy as FADH2 NADH and ATP

Net yield per glucose
ATP 2
NADH 6
FADH2 2

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18
Q

Aerobic reapiration step 9 (krebs 1)

A

Acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate —> citrate

(2carbon) + 4(carbon) = 6carbon

Every carbon of glut is lost as co2
(Why we have to exhale)

Only possible with sugars

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19
Q

Aerobic respiration step 10

Krebs 2

A 
Citrate
|
|
(2)Co2 —-> releases 
|
|
(2)nad+—-> (2) NADH
|
|
(2)co2 is released 
|
|
(2)nad+—-> (2) NADH
|
|
(2)ATP are produced
|
|
2 FAD——> 2 FADH2
|
|
(2)nad+—-> (2) NADH
|
| 
Oxaloacetate is reformed
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20
Q

Electron transport chain (ETC)

Overview

A

Occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria

Takes the NADH And FADH2 which have energy form ch bounds and releases them in order to synthesize ATP

Net yields
NADH- moves 10 h+
FADH2 moves 6 h+

NADH pases 2 electrons to complex 1 which pumps 4 H+ from matrix to intermembrane space

Uniquinone (q) moves electrons to complex 3

FADH passes 2 electrons to complex 2 (doesn’t move h+) but does pass electrons to q

Q sends electrons to complex 3

Once in complex 3 it will pump 4+ hydrogens from matrix to intermembrane space

They then move to cyte c and are carried to complex 4

Once in 4 it will then pump 2 H+ to Intermembrane space

Then o2 finally accepts the electrons creating water

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21
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

The diffusion of the h+ through atpsynthase

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22
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

When h+ gradient is used as energy to make ATP

ADP + and pi + energy= ATP

Each pair of electrons produce about 2.5ATP (NADH

Or 1.5AtP (FADH2)

NADH yields 3

FADH2 yields 2 ATP

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23
Q

Net yields

A

Glycolysis 2ATP per glucose
And the electron transport 34 ATP per glucose

Aprox because some h+ leaks through the outer membrane of mitochondria

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24
Q

Lipolysis

A

The breakdown of lipids

Tryglecerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Glycerol enters glycolysis as glyceraldehyde 3 pho’s and becomes pyruvate

Fatty acids enter in krebs as acetyl CoA

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25
Q

Beta oxidation

A

Breakdown of a fatty acid into 2 carbon acetyl groups and a coenzyme A

Process continues for every 2 carbons

Each time This 2 carbons are broken off NADH and FADH2 are generated

Each time one acetyl CoA goes through krebs
3NADH
fAD
ATP

Gives more atp per gram then glucose

Occurs in matrix

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26
Q

Lipogenesis

A

The process of making new fat

Can be synthesized by combining acetyl groups

Beta oxidation in reverse

Occurs in cytoplasm

New fatty acids are stored throughout the body for long term storage

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27
Q

Ketoacidosis

A

Complication when the body is no long metabolizing sugar

Cause
Dieting
Fasting
*type 1 diabetes (cells will mostly metabolize fat)

The citric acid cycle has a limit
When there is to much acetyl CoA

Excess ACetyl CoA combine to form 4 carbon Ketones which make the breath smell like fruity alcohol

Which lowers blood ph making it more acidic

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28
Q

Gluconeogenisis and protien metabolism

A

Protiens are broken down into individual amino acids

Some amino acids can enter at different parts of the pathways depending on there r groups

Best choice for making new glucose

Like reverse glycolysis

Happens in the liver

Stimulated when blood sugar is too low

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29
Q

Upper motor neurons

A

Found in the cerebral cortex where planning and initiation and coordination of movement occur

Which then articulate with LMN

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30
Q

Lower motor neurons

A

In the cranial nerve or in anterior horn of the spinal chord

Which then leave the cns and synapse with a muscle at a neuromuscular junction

(Somatic nervous system) all nerves involved in voluntary movement

Voluntary is top down

Reflexes come from bottom up

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31
Q

Motor units

A

A nerve and all the muscle fibers it inervates

Thigh muscles have thousands of fibers I one unit

Fingers and eye muscles have 3to 5

Muscle fibers are all or nothing

When more fibers contract in a motor unit to increase strength this is called recruitment

32
Q

Voluntary movement

A

Begins in the brain(cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum)

1 planning (frontal lobe)
2 iniation (premotor area)
3 execution (stimulation of upper motor neurons in motor cortex)

The first two steps occur in the cerebral cortex and the last step follow the signal from the cns to PNS to muscle

Idea (prefrontal area) and the organizing and planning movement in (premotor area) In the precentral gyris which stimulates the movement in the motor cortex the signal is then sent to lower motor units in the cranial nerve nuclei or anterior horn and sent out to muscle

Aka descending tracts

33
Q

Lateral corticospinal tract

A

Largest descending tract

UMN cross from right side in the brain to the left side in the spinal chord

Left side controls right movement

This crossover is aka decussation which occurs in the medullary pyramids in the brainstem

34
Q

Agonist muscle

A

Performs desired movement

35
Q

Antagonist muscle

A

Opposes desired movement

Good for controlling and regulating movement speed and strength

36
Q

Propiceptors

A

Are sencesors that relay information about the position of our body and extremities at any given moment

Direction and rate at which we are moving

We also intake input from eyes and ears to regulate movement

37
Q

Reflex

A

Mechanism where the body is able to sense a change and respond appropriately Para maintain homeostasis

Are autonomic and unconsciously

Receptor
Afferent sensory neuron
Control center
Efferent motor unit
Effector
38
Q

Mechanoreceptor

A

Sensory input that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion

Touch
Pressure
Sound waves
Motion

39
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Detects a certain chemical stimuli

Ex co2 by receptors in carotid artery which then activated breathing changes

Taste and smell

40
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Respond to temperature

41
Q

Photoreceptors

A

In the cells of the retina and respond to light which is converted into vision

42
Q

Nociceptors

A

Detach damage in tissue or the threat of damage in a tissue

Perceived as pain

43
Q

Monosynaptic

A

Are simple reflexes that involve a single synapse between two neurons

44
Q

Polysynaaptic

A

Two or more synapses in the more complex reflex

45
Q

Somatic reflexes

A

Stretch
Golgi tendon
And withdraw
All are based in spinal chord but can be influenced by upper neuron functioning

Involve propiceptors Which are located on our

Muscles

46
Q

Stretch reflex

A

Muscle spindles (propoceptors muscle length) which are intrafusal fibers that run parallel with contractile fibers which are called extrafusal fibers

Occur in highest density near tendons

Intrafusal fibers are only capable of contraction at tapered ends
Don’t contribute to net contraction where they connect with gama neurons

Sensory neurons Intervate the center non contractile región which sense changes in length

If pulled will stimulate an alpha motor neuron (at the anterior horn) that contracts the muscle so it doesn’t stretch to far

Tapered ends contract as the rest of the muscle contracts keeping the muscle spindle at baseline which maintains sensitivity
Aka alpha gama co activation

Recipricle inhibition also occurs and the antagonist muscle is relaxed which prevents injury

47
Q

Golgi tendon organ or GTO

A

Inhibitory
Results in the opposite as a muscle spindle

Prevents over contraction and tendons from damage

Encapsulated nerve endings That are Inter woven in the collegen fibers of the tendon

Monitor tension rather then length

Sends signals Inter neurons and then inhibitory neurons which inhibit alpha motor neurons which cause the muscle to relax

Brain can override in life or death senarios but can lead to damage

48
Q

Withdrawal reflex

A

Avoid pain and tissue damage

Nociceptors are stimulated by damage which activate lower motor neurons then stimulate the contraction to remove or withdraw ourselves from danger

Generally takes place as flexor muscles are stimulated to contract

Reciprocal inhibition also takes place

49
Q

Crossed extensor reflex

A

This reflex can work in conjunction with withdrawal reflex. The signal also crosses over to the other side of the body to strengthen the opposite limb to account for the nos relaxed original limb.

50
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Smooth
Cardiac
And glands

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

51
Q

Sympathetic Ns

Overview

A 
Creates fight or flight response
Increase heart rate
Hyperventilation
Shut down of digestion 
Increased bp

Mydriadis- pupil dilation

And increased blood flow to heart and skel muscles

Shorter pregang
Longer post gang

Pregang ACh
Post gang NE (except sweat glands and some blood vessels ACH )

52
Q

Parasympathetic NS

A

Rest and digest
Decreased heart rate
Decrease bp
Miosis or the constrion of the pupil

Increased digestion
Increased urination

SlUD

Salivation lacrimation(tears) urinate defecation 
Most secretions of the body increase

Longer pregang
Shorter postgang

Pre and post gang ACH

53
Q

Is the ANS necesita for organs to function

A

No they can contract on their own
But ans helps regulate them!

Speed up or slowdown to maintain homeostasis

54
Q

Dual automatic innervation

A

Parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves inervate the same muscle and oppose one another to maintain homeostasis

55
Q

ANS organization

Messaging ssystem

A

Normally two neurons

Have both preganglionic and post ganglionic neurons

Preganglyonic is Myelinated and post is not

Cell bodies of pre gang are located in the cns
And axon terminals are located in the autonomic ganglia

The synapse between post gang and effector are aka neuroeffector synapse or neuroeffector

56
Q

Sympathetic chain ganglia

A

Located near the column of spine

Sympathetic

57
Q

Collateral ganglia

A

Located further away from the spine
Aka celiac
Superior mesenteric and inferior Mesenteric

58
Q

Terminal ganglia

A

Parasympathetic

Located very near the effector organ

59
Q

Post gang effector synapse

A

Swellings called varicosities rather then axon terminals

They secrete neurotransmitters aross synapse to effector organ

60
Q

Sympathetic division (SNS)

A

Cell bodies of pregang located from T1 to L2/3ish on the lateral horn of spinal Column

Go down ventral root

Enter spinal nerve

Then exit via white ramus Communicans (myelinated axons)

And enter sympathetic chain gang

(1)simple

They then cross over to post gang and leave the chain gang through gray ramus communicans (un myelinated axons) and enter spinal nerve which takes them to effector

2
Instead of rendering a spinal nerve it enters a sympathetic nerve instead and travels to thoracic cavity

3 leaves chain gang without synapse and forms a spachnic nerve that then goes to collateral ganglia
They then synapse and post gang goes to organs and glands and vessels in abdominal pelvic cavity

4 similar to splanchnic nerves but instead of synapse it travels straight through collateral ganglia and extend to thr medulla of adrenal gland where they produce epinephrine and norepinephrine
The medullar cells function as post synaptic and 80% release epi and 20% nor epi directly in blood stream

61
Q

Spinal nerve and post gang symp

A

8% of 31 pairs of spinal nerves are post gang symp

The can innervate effectors in the skin
Irises lens
Nasal mucous membranes 
Salivary glands
Heart 
Lungs 
Stomach
Intestines
Adrenyl glands
Urinary bladder
62
Q

PNS pathways

A

Cranial area
SacrAl área

Cranial : pre gang coming from brain are in brain stem and make up part of cell bodies

Cranial nerve 3 pupil size and shape of lens

Cranial nerve 7 which controls mucus membranes, lacrimal and salivary glands

9 which controls parotid salivary glands

And 10 Vegus thoracic cavity organs and upper abdominal (75-80%) of of all parasympathetic fibers are found in the Vegas nerve

Sacral(lateral horn of spinal chord) axons go to
Pelvic splanchnic nerves and then extend to terminal ganglia located near the effector

Lower half of intestines
Organs of reproductive system
And renal systems

63
Q

The enteric nervous system

A

ENS

Digestive tract from esophagus to the Colon

Myenteric plexus

Submucosal plexus

Which receive preganglionic fibers from the parasympathetic division and post ganglionic from sympathetic division

Is capable of working independently of the cns by way of local reflexes

Enzyme secretions and purpoltion of food

Provides synchronized peristaltic movements

64
Q

Enteric pathway

A

As food enters the digestive tract it stretched receptors in the gut which send action potential sown afferent enteric sensory neurons. These neurons synapse with enteric interneurons which activate enteric motor neurons which innervate glands and smooth muscle

65
Q

Sympathetic division chemical and receptors

A

Pregang releases ACh which binds to nicatinic receptor post gang and then at termial of post gang releases NE which binds to ADREnErgic receptors (A12B123)

Exception is sweat glands where ACh is released by post neuron and binds to muscarinic receptors(M3)

Exception 2 adrenal glands

Go directly to gland no synapse and activates cell. With ACH and N2 receptors which causes the call to release epi and nor epi into the blood stream

66
Q

Sympathetic division pathway and chemical receptors

A

Pregang ACh that binds to nicotinic receptors (N2) then post gang releases ACh again but it binds with muscarinic M12345

67
Q

Receptors

A

Nicotinic are found on all post gang receptors both para and symp

Respond to ACh and become excited

Muscarinic are found on all para effector cells and some sweat symp cells
Respond to ACh which may be excite or inhibit

Adregenic receptors are located on most symp cells respond to NE and can be both excited or inhibited

68
Q

Neurotransmitters of ans

A

Cholinergic neurons produce ACh and store it in end terminals
(Pre of symp and para)(post para and for some reproductive blood vessels and sweat glands of symp)

Adrigenoc (post neuron of symp)
Produces catecholamines (nor epi and dope)

Even is usual inhibitory
Odd is excititory

Epi likes B2 and NE likes alpha 1

69
Q

Agonist vs antagonist drugs

A

Agonist activates and amplifies

Antagonist binds and prevents or inhibits

70
Q

Eyes

A

Outer iris smooth muscles controls size of pupil “dialaters” have alpha 1 receptores
Cause myrdriasis when contract which is symp

The inner sphincter puppille controls how much light enters the eye
Para and have m3 receptors cause miosis

Phenylephrine is an alpha 1 agonist
And atropine is a muscarinic antagonist
Both are mydriatics and are taken by eye drops

Lens focuses the image (cillary muscles help control shape of lense for shar focus ) flat fat domed close
Para and symp
Beta 2 cause flatter lens
Muscarinic receptors make more domed lens

Atropine can also blurr vision for near objects (cycloplegia)

Cillary muscles also cause tension in trabecular network which allows for the opening of pores and the out glow of aqueous humor into the canal of Schlemm and and back into circulation (M)

Pilocarpine muscalinc agonist can treat elevated Intraocular pressure by letting the fluid flow out

Beta 1 stimulation on cillary body increase production of aqueous humor

Beta1 agonist betaxolol are also used to treat glaucoma (inter eye pressure)

71
Q

Blood vessels

A

Alpha 1 receptors on smooth muscle cells

Activation increases ca which causes the muscle to contract which narrows the artery and and reduces blood flow

Arteries of certain organs in musing skeletal or cardiac muscle have beta 2 receptors
In addition to alpha 1. B2 are actives by epi which causes relaxation of smooth muscle and vasodilation Depending on the ratio of alpha and beta and concentration of epi in blood stream

Prazosin is alpha 1 antagonist used to treat high bp

The vast majority of blood vessels are not involved with parasympathetic response

72
Q

Sweat glands

A

Only innervated by symp

Stimulated by muscarinic receptors are activated by stress are located on the soles palms genitalia and armpits and have a1 receptors

Terazosin is another alpha 1 antagonist that can treat excessive sweating

73
Q

Heart

A

Symp and release of catecholamines. From adrenal glands increase heart rate due to high concentration of beta 1 receptors

Atenolol is a beta 1 agonist and can treat high bp
Decrease heart rate

Parasympathetic M or muscualinic agonist have opposite effect

Atropine a músculinic antagonist is used in emergency Med to start the heart back up after cardiac arrrest Which blocks parasympathetic activity

74
Q

Lungs

A

Activation of muscarinic receptors on smooth muscle lining result in the constriction of the air way

While beta activatated by circulated epinephrine causes the airway to open up)

Beta 2 is only activated by circulating epi and not by norepinephrine from post gang

Ipratropium muscarinic antagonist

Alburterol is beta 2 agonist

Both are administered via enhaler

75
Q

Stomach and intestines

A

Para are much more extensive then symp

Para includes secretion of glands mixing and digesting food, and movement down the tract.

Many muscarinic and fewer alpha 1 and beta 2 are located in the smooth muscle

Activation of muscarinic and blocking of alpha and beta causes better digestion

Bethanechol offers a jumó start to normal gut motility and is a muscarinic agonist

76
Q

Alpha 1
B3
B1

A

Primarily found on blood vessels

Beta 3 (fat cells)

Beta 1 everything else

Anatomy (7 decks)

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