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A&P 101 + 104 > UNIT 3 - Respiratory > Flashcards

UNIT 3 - Respiratory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is included in the upper respiratory system? (6)

A

Nose
nasal cavity
nasal sinuses
pharynx
larynx
trachea

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2
Q

What is included in the lower respiratory tract? (3)

A

Bronchi
Bronchioles
Lungs

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3
Q

What is the major function of the respiratory system? What are four additional functions?

A

Major - Supply oxygen to body and remove CO2

Phonation
Assist w/ body temp control
regulation of acid-base balance
sense of smell

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4
Q

Name and describe the three levels that respiration occurs in the body?

A

External - Physical act of getting oxygen IN and CO2 OUT of the body
Internal - Exchange of oxygen and CO2 b/w the blood and cell
Cellular Respiration - Production of ATP by the cell

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5
Q

What are dilated nostrils a sign of in animals?

A

The animal is struggling getting enough oxygen for its metabolic needs

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6
Q

Describe the nose and its features

A

Lined w/ hair to filter lger air-borne particles
Skin surrounding nostril is continuous with the muzzle
Opened by muscles for air movement
Supported by nasal cartilages

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7
Q

Describe the function of the nose

A

To warm, humidify and filter air before it reahes the lungs

Highly vascular - easy to cause significant hemorrhage
Sneezing + coughing from inflammation + debris irritating the sensitive mucosa and expels harmful substances

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8
Q

Describe the Nasal Cavity

A

Its separated from the mouth by the hard and soft palates

Has Nasal conchae/turbinates which protect against noxious gasses + trap particles. Blood vessels help warm inspired air, has a layer of mucus

Naso-lacrimal ducts - drain excess tears from eyes to nasal cavity
Median Nasal Septum - Separates nasal cavity to R and L halves

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9
Q

What is the nasal meatus? Describe where the ventral nasal meatus is located and what it does

A

Pathways b/w conchae/turbinates

Ventral Nasal Meatus runs dorsal to the hard palate.
A route for passing a stomach tube - directed medially and ventrally they vent meatus to nasopharynx
Very vascular - if not manipulated gently = bleeding

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10
Q

Describe the paranasal sinuses. What are the four sinuses?

A

Maxillary, frontal, sphenoid, and palatine sinuses

Bilaterally symmetrical, mucous membrane lined and air-filled
reduces weight of skull
Infection prone

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11
Q

Describe the Pharynx

A

A common passageway that connects the oral cavity w/ the esophagus = Oropharynx
Connects nasal cavity w/ larynx = Nasopharynx

Passage way for food + air

Openings int pharynx are: the mouth, 2 caudal nares, 2 eustachian tubes, esophagus and larynx

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12
Q

Describe the 3 major divisions of the pharynx? What do they do?

A

Nasopharynx - Part of respiratory channel
Floor formed by soft palate, openings of auditory tubes (connect middle ear to nasopharynx + equalize pressure on both sides of ear drum)
OROPHARYNX - Part of digestive tract
Laryngopharynx - common to both digestive + respiratory passageways
Inspired air passe thru nasal cavity and enters caudal nares (passes thru pharynx to larnyx)

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13
Q

What is the order of processes of intaking food and swallowing. Describe it and how swallowing works

A

Food enters mouth, passes thru pharynx into esophagus by contractions of pharyngeal muscles - larynx closed by epiglottis

Swallowing - breathing stops, glottis opening is covered, material moved to rear of pharynx, open esophagus, move material dorsally into esophagus. Swallow. Once swallowed, larnyx uncovered breathing resumes.

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14
Q

What happens if swallowing malfunctions?

A

Aspiration and subsequent pneumonia

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15
Q

Describe the larynx

A

The voice box

Mucosa-lined, cartilaginous tube joining the pharynx at the trachea

Supported by hyoid apparatus
very delicate

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16
Q

Describe the functions of the larynx

A

 Directs air to the trachea
 Prevents the aspiration of ingesta
 Houses the vocal organs
 Made of segments of cartilage connected to
each other and surrounded by muscles

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17
Q

What are the major cartilages of the larynx

A

Epiglottis
Arytenoid cartilages (paired)
thyroid cartilage (adam’s apple)
Cricoid cartilage

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18
Q

Describe what the epiglotis is

A

A leaf-shaped and located rostrally which projects forward from the ventral portion of the larynx. The tip is usually tucked up dorsal to the caudal rim of the soft palate when the animal is breathing.

The epiglottis pulls back to cover the larynx (the glottis) to prevent swallowed material entering larynx

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19
Q

Describe the arytenoid cartilages

A

They attach the vocal folds to form the boundaries of the glottis (opening into larynx)

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20
Q

Describe the thyroid cartilage

A

Articulates w/ the hyoid apparatus
attaches muscles associated w/ swallowing and phonation

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21
Q

Describe the cricoid cartilage

A

Connects the thyroid cartilage to the trachea
maintains shape of larynx so air can pass through

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22
Q

Describe the vocal folds

A

The laryngeal cavity contains vocal folds that runf front arytenoid cartilages to interior floor of thyroid cartilage

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23
Q

How is voice produced?

A

When vocal cords relax and tighten, as air passes over them it causes them to vibrate

The pitch can be changed from low pitchThe pitch can be changed from a low pitch
(relaxed vocal cords – open glottis) to a high
pitch (tightened vocal cords – closed glottis)

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24
Q

What are the 3 main functions of the larynx?

A
  1. Voice production
  2. Prevention of aspiration of foreign bodies - thru epiglottis and muscle contractions pull larynx forward and fold epiglottis back over opening
  3. Control of airflow to and from lungs - adjusts size of glottis w/ vocal folds + closing glottis w/ epiglottis
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25
Q

Describe the trachea

A

A short white tube extending from larynx to thorax which divides into 2 main brocnhi at the tracheal bifurcation (or carina). Occurs @ lvl of heart

Composed of C-shaped hyaline cartilage with C opening dorsal. - Prevents trachea collapse on inspiration, can change trachea size

lined w/ pseudostratified ciliated mucosa

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26
Q

Describe the lower respiratory tract, where does it start?

A

Stars w/ bronchi and ends with alveoli

Includes all air passages in b/w
All lower RT are in the lungs

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27
Q

What is the bronchial tree?

A

The lower RT forms a tree as bronchi divide to bronchioles and branch smaller to become alveolar ducts which terminate in alveolar sacs.

These sacs look like a bunch of grapes

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28
Q

What is bronchodilatation? Bronchoconstruction?

A

Bronchodilation (relaxtion of smooth muscle in bronchial tree) during increased O2 demand and Bronchoconstriction during rest. (Can also get constriction w/ lung irritants)

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29
Q

What are heaves in horses?

A

A chronic allergic condition usually to dust and fungal spores in hay

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30
Q

Describe alveoli. What do they do? What are they?

A

Multiple alveoli make up alveolar saces. A site for gas exchange. They are tiny, thin walled sacs surrounded by a capillary network

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31
Q

What is alveoli surfactant?

A

Surfactant reduct stickiness (surface tension) or alveolar walls: assist in expansion during breath and helps prevent complete lung collapse

important in premature babies as surfactant often not properly formed and contributes to non-viability of premature animals

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32
Q

Describe the lungs and its function

A

To exchange oxygen for CO2 in blood

Each lung is cone-shaped w/ base at diaphragm and apex close to thoracic inlet. Lateral side of lungs contact with thoracic wall (except cardiac notch where in contact w/ heart)

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33
Q

Describe the lung lobes

A

All animals will have L cranial + Caudal lobe (L cranial lobe subdivided. Caudal lob = L middle lobe)
R cranial, middle and caudal lobe
Accessory lob

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34
Q

What parts of lung lobes do horses have?

A

L and R lobs + accessory lobe

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35
Q

Draw a picture of the lung lobes or list them out below. What are their names and identification?

A

RIGHT LEFT
Cranial Cranial-cranial
Middle Cranial-caudal
Caudal Caudal
Accessory

36
Q

What is the hilus? Where is it locates?

A

Each lung has small well defined area on medial side called the hilus where air, blood, lymph and nerves enter/leave the lung

Only area of lung that is fastened in place

37
Q

What is the basis of a standard necropsy test to see if a newborn was born dead or
alive

A

 Cut a piece of lung and place it in some
water:
 If lung sinks - no air ever entered
the lungs and the animal was born
dead
 If lung floats - air has entered the
lungs so newborn was born alive

38
Q

What are the boundaries of the Thorax?

A

 Dorsally: the thoracic vertebrae
 Laterally: the ribs
 Ventrally: the sternum
 Caudally: the diaphragm
 Cranially: 1st pair of ribs, 1st thoracic
vertebrae and cranial part of sternum
(manubrium)- thoracic inlet

39
Q

What are the contents in the thorax?

A

the lungs, heart, large
blood vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus,
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes

40
Q

What is pleura? What does it do and what does it line?

A
  • Thin membrane that covers organ structures
     Parietal pleura – lines the thoracic cavity
     Visceral pleura – covers the thoracic organs

B/w pleura is a sm amount of lubricating fluid to prevent friction (ex. during breathing)

41
Q

What is negative intrathoracic pressure?

A
  • A partial vacuum within the thorax that keeps the lungs against the thoracic wall
  • When the lung expands, it expands lung volume for air to enter
  • Lungs are passive - thorax + diaphragm actively expand and increase lung volume
  • Helps pull blood into the atria of the heart
42
Q

What is pneumothorax?

A

When air leaks into the space b/w the lung and thoracic wall. The neg. intrathoracic pressure is compromised

Can also be from fluid like blood and pus

If its severe, body can’t expand lungs and may cause lung collapse and dead.

43
Q

Describe inspiration

A

Drawing air into lungs = inhalation
Power is provided by diaphragm and EXT intercostal muscles
- Diaphragm is dome-shaped, it contracts and FLATTENS on inspiration - normal resting (abdominal) respiration

44
Q

Where are the external intercostal ribs found? How do they help with inspiration?

A

Found b/w ribs

Pull ribs up and forward to expand thoracic cavity
May be assisted by shoulder, neck and chest muscles - stretching limb forwards during running helps expands chest, landing compresses the chest

45
Q

Describe expiration

A

Moving air out of lungs - exhalation
relaxing of diaphragm
assisted by gravity + elasticity of lung tissue and thoracic wall

  • Normal expiration uses less effort than inspiration and is an ALMOST passive process
46
Q

What is forced expiration? Where are the Internal intercostal muscles found?

A

Forced expiration is powered by INT intercostal and abdominal muscles
Int costal muscles found b/w ribs DEEP to the externals
they pull ribs causally and rotate to decrease thoracic volume
Abdominal muscles contract to push the organs against diaphragm to restore dome shape and decrease thoracic volume

47
Q

What are the four types of breathing?

A

 Dyspnea - increased respiratory activity
and effort - difficult breathing
 Apnea - absence or cessation of breathing
 Hyperpnea/Hyperventilation - increase
in rate or depth of breathing or both
 Tachypnea/Polypnea - shallow rapid
breath

48
Q

What is the definition of tidal volume and Minute volume?

A

 Tidal Volume: the volume of air exchanged
during ONE BREATH
 Varies depending on the needs of the animal –
exercising vs rest
 Minute volume: the volume of air exchanged
during ONE MINUTE of breathing
 Equals the tidal volume X number of breaths
per minute

49
Q

What is the definition of residual volume, vital capacity. What is the formula for total lung capacity?

A

 Residual volume: the volume of air remaining
in the lungs after maximum expiration
 Will never be completely empty!!
 Vital Capacity: the maximum amount of air
that can be expired after a maximal
inspiration
 Total Lung Capacity: Vital capacity + Residual
Volume

50
Q

How does exchange of gases in alveoli work?

A

Blood that enters lung caps have high conc. of Co2 and low conc. of O2
O2 and Co2 diffuse thru caps and alveolar walls DOWN their conc gradients.
This results in a moment of CO2 from BLOOD INTO ALVEOLI and O2 from the air in the ALVEOLI TO BLOOD

51
Q

How is the concentration gradient maintained by alveoli?

A

It is maintained by the constant flow of O2 depleted blood into the caps and breathing to refresh air in alveoli

Almost all the hemoglobin in blood becomes saturated with O2 during this process - even blood returning to lungs has residual oxygen bound to hemoglobin

52
Q

How can the exchange rate be affected in alveolar gas exchange?

A

If the distance the gas must cover increased EX interstitial fluid in the lung can severely impact the amount of O2 absorbed

53
Q

What factors can decrease Hgb ability to bind O2?

A

Increased temp
reduced pH
Increaed Co2
- helps O2 to dissociate from Hgb in the places where it’s needed most - the tissues

54
Q

What happens if part of the lung collapses or has an airway obstruction?

A

O2 lvls in alveoli decreased and body responds with local hypoxic vasoconstriction which decreased the blood circulating thru parts of the lung that aren’t allowed good gas exchange

55
Q

What is the problem with generalized hypoxia?

A

It creates overall vasoconstriction in the lungs

leads to increase of vascular resistance
results in pulmon hypertension
causes R heart to work harder to pump against resistance
possible R heart failure + peripheral edema (high mountain disease in cattle

56
Q

What is partial pressure of gases? Explain how it works

A

The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of pressures of each individual gas

Each individual gas has its own pressure that is PART of the total atmospheric presser = partial pressure.

EX when partial pressure of O2 is higher in the air than blood, O2 will move into blood (down the conc gradient)

57
Q

Describe what control of breathing is. What two types are there?

A

Muscles involved in breather are voluntary control
the process is typically involuntary control

  1. Mechanical control - sets limit on normal inspire + expire
  2. Chemical control -Monitor Co2, pH and O2 in blood
58
Q

What is the respiratory center in the brainstem? What is it in charge of?

A

Medula oblongata and pons

Has different control centers for inspiration, expiration and breath holding.
all are subconscious
can be overridden by conscious control

59
Q

What is the medullary rhythmicity area responsible for?

A

Setting the rate
Works thru inspiratory area (expiration is passive result of inspiratory effort ending)
has automatic rhythmic signal for inspiration
this signal travels down phrenic nerve to diaphgran thru intercostal nerves to ext intercostal muscles
expiratory area is usually activated during forced expiration

60
Q

Explain what mechanical control in breathing is

A

It sets limits on normal inspire + expire
works thru stretch receptor in lung
receptors feed back to respiratory center, which signals muscles of inspire and expire

61
Q

Describe how Chemical control in control of breathing works

A

Chemoreceptors monitor Co2, pH, O2 in blood
Loc. in brain, carotic artery and aorta
signals respiratory center if any imbalances

62
Q

Which is more important, a rise in Co2, or a decrease of O2 concentration? Explain why

A

Rise of CO2 conc. more important than decrease into O2 conc in terms of stimulating breathing

CO2 + pH are linked so if CO2 is high, pH goes down and blood = acidic
by increasing RR the body can blow off excess CO2 and bring pH back to normal

63
Q

What are oxygen sensors?

A

They signal to increase rate of mild hypoxia
With severe hypoxia the neurons may become to depressed to signal, may lead to respiratory failure

64
Q

What is a cough in terminology?

A

protective reflex stimulated by irritation in the
trachea or bronchi
 Requires pressure against a closed glottis, then
sudden release
 Can be productive or non-productive – treated very
differently!!

65
Q

What is a sneeze in terminology?

A

protective reflex stimulated by irritation in the
nasal passages

66
Q

What is a yawn in terminology?

A

slow deep breath stimulated by decrease in O2
levels in blood, by boredom, drowsiness, fatigue, or
anxiety

67
Q

What is a sigh in terminology?

A

deeper than normal breath that may be
stimulated by decrease in O2 levels in the blood
 Can be beneficial to give an occasional ‘sigh’
breath to anesthetized animals

68
Q

What is hiccups in terminology?

A

spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm
with a sudden closure of the glottis – usually
temporary and harmless

69
Q

What is panting in terminology?

A

mechanism to dissipate heat –increased
respiratory rate with decreased tidal volume
 Primarily moves air through the upper airways to
exchange heat.

70
Q

What is physiological dead space in terminology?

A

 The part of the respiratory system where there is no
gas exchange.
 Important during anesthesia. If a long endotracheal
tube is placed with a long piece protruding,
physiological dead space increases and reduces gas
exchange.

71
Q

Explain what dive reflex is in aquatic animals?

A

a reflex among aquatic, air-breathing
animals that helps them remain submerged for long periods of time
 Upon partial entry of water into air passages, the body responds by changes in heart rate, cessation of breathing, and shunting blood from less essential
tissues
 Though to be associated with survival of young children who have falling into cold water

72
Q

Describe what a empysema is in terminology?

A

destruction of alveolar membranes leads to larger lung chambers and decreased surface area available for gas exchange

73
Q

Describe what atelectasis is in terminology?

A

Collaspe of alveoli - results from airway obstruction or lact of surfactant

74
Q

Explain what haemoptysis is in terminology?

A

Coughing up blood

75
Q

What are two abnormal respiratory sounds?

A

 Stridor: high-pitched, indicates upper air way
obstruction.
 Stertor: low-pitched, a sign of flaccid tissue
vibrating in the airway. Sounds like snoring.

76
Q

What is sinusitis?

A

Inflammation + congestion of the paranasal sinuses
Can become so severe it obstructs drainage
may require surgical intervention
trephinate to drain

77
Q

Explain what tonsilitis is

A

Common in canine, rare in cat
occurs as primary disease in sm breeds like toy poodles
may over secondary to mouth, pharynx or nasal passage infections
chronic tonsillitis may occur in brachycephalic dogs alongside elongation and hypertrophy of soft palate + chronic pharyngitis

78
Q

Explain what dorsal displacement of the soft palate

A

During bigorous exericise, soft palate rises, epiglottis falls below it, reduces diameter of nasopharynx, interferes w/ exercise

79
Q

Explain what de-barking is. Laryngospasm and laryngeal edema

A

 “DE-BARKING” - severing or suturing down
the vocal folds
 LARYNGOSPASM
 Be careful not to irritate the area when
intubating
 LARYNGEAL EDEMA - from irritants, trauma
from endotracheal intubation, surgery, and
excessive panting in brachycephalic and obese
dogs

80
Q

What is laryngeal hemiplegia?

A

Commin in horses - known as roarers
paralysis of recurrent laryngeal nerve (usually left) from injury or genetics
vocal fold obstructs the lumen and vibrate t o cause noises when exercising (roaring)
Can be fixed by surgical treatment - laryngeal tie-back or laryngeal ventriculectomy

81
Q

Explain upper respiratory tract infections

A

affects nasal passages, pharynx, larynx and trachea
a nuisance or life threatening
can be a productive cough - good
ex. cats with cat flu, or dog with kennel cough

82
Q

What are heaves?

A

Recurrent airway obstruction

Chronic allergic disease of horse characterized by laubored respire, chronic cough, lack of stamina
more common in stabled animals than those in pasture
9-12 affected years
respiratory distress due to dyspnea, secondary to narrowing of airways during expire
progressive and pathological changes to lungs irreveresible

83
Q

What is pneumothorax?

A

Free air in chest
result from hole in chest wall or punctured lung
can be self-miniting and the air absorbed
if lg volumes of air enter pleural cavity, lung collaspe

84
Q

Explain pleural effusion

A

A normal accumulaton of fluid in pleural space
reduces ability of lung to inflate. lung lobes float in pleural fluid
several causes: fluid can accumulate from heart failure, hemorrhage, lymph vessel leakae, pus, cancer

85
Q

Explain what a pulmonary edema is?

A

Abnormal accumulation of flud in airways and alveoli
associated w circulatory disorders like L vent failure, anaphylactic shock or severe allergies
auscultation of heart may have fluid noises

86
Q

Explain what pneumonia is

A

Inflammation of the lung
ususally for INFECTIONS (bacterial or viral)
use pneumonitis for NON-INFECTIOUS inflammation

More serious than bronchitis
mucus + fluids accumulate and plug sections of lung, decrease gas exchange

87
Q

What is a diaphragmatic hernia?

A

Result from trauma (H.B.C’s in particular) also congenital
Depends on size of opening whether stomach contents have entered chest
Can be life threatening if not dealt with
considerable volume of stomach viscer may pass through a the small tear from neg pressure in thorax

A&P 101 + 104 (7 decks)

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