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CfE Higher Human > Unit 3 - Neurobiology & Immunology > Flashcards

Unit 3 - Neurobiology & Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

Central nervous system

A

Division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

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2
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Division of the nervous system consisting of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

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3
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Division of the nervous system consisting of sensory or motor neurons.

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4
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Division of the nervous system consisting of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons.

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5
Q

Antagonistic

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons bring about opposite effects.

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6
Q

Sympathetic

A

Division of the nervous system that speeds up heart and breathing rate

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7
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Division of the nervous system that speeds up peristalsis and secretions of the intestines.

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8
Q

Sensory

A

Neurons that take impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.

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9
Q

Motor

A

Neurons that take impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

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10
Q

Converging

A

Neural pathway where impulses from several neurons travel to one neuron.

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11
Q

Diverging

A

Neural pathway where impulses from one neuron travel to several neurons.

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12
Q

Reverberating

A

Neural pathway where neurons later in the pathway link with earlier neurons, allowing repeated stimulation of the pathway.

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13
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

The area of the brain responsible for conscious thought.

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14
Q

Localisation of function

A

The brain contains sensory, motor and association areas.

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15
Q

Association areas of the brain are concerned with

A

Language processing, personality, intelligence and imagination

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16
Q

Left cerebral hemisphere

A

Controls the right side of the body and receives info from the right visual field.

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17
Q

Right cerebral hemisphere.

A

Controls the left side of the body and receives info from the left visual field.

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18
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Band of tissue that allows information to be transferred between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

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19
Q

Encoding

A

The process of placing information into the memory.

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20
Q

Storage

A

The retention of information in the memory.

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21
Q

Retrieval

A

The recovery of information from the memory.

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22
Q

Sensory memory

A

Type of memory that retains all the visual and auditory input received for a few seconds.

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23
Q

Short-term memory (STM)

A

Type of memory that has a limited capacity and holds information for a short time.

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24
Q

Memory span

A

The capacity of the short-term memory.

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25
Q

Chunking

A

A method used to improve the capacity of the short-term memory.

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26
Q

The serial position effect

A

Characteristic memory pattern where words at the start and end of a list are recalled more easily than those in the middle.

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27
Q

Displacement

A

Items in the short-term memory that are lost through being replaced by new information

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28
Q

Decay

A

Items in the short-term memory that are lost after a short time has passed.

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29
Q

The working memory model

A

The ability of the short-term memory to process and store data and to perform simple cognitive tasks.

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30
Q

Long-term memory (LTM)

A

Type of memory that has an unlimited capacity and can hold information for a long time.

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31
Q

Rehearsal

A

A shallow form of encoding info into the LTM by repetition.

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32
Q

Organisation

A

A form of encoding info into the LTM by sorting information into categories.

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33
Q

Elaboration

A

A deeper form of encoding info into the LTM by adding detail to the information, leading to improved retention.

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34
Q

Contextual cues

A

Information that relates to the time and place when the memory was initially encoded into the LTM.

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35
Q

Cell body

A

Structure in a neuron which contains the nucleus and most of the cytoplasm

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36
Q

Axon

A

Structure in a neuron which is a single nerve fibre and carries impulses away from a cell body

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37
Q

Dendrite

A

Nerve fibres that pass impulses towards a cell body

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38
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty material that insulates a neuron and speeds up the rate of impulse conduction

39
Q

Glial cells

A

The cells surrounding neurons that produce the myelin sheath

40
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Type of chemical messenger used at a synapse

41
Q

Vesicles

A

Sacs inside which neurotransmitters are stored in the presynaptic neuron

42
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

Where neurons connect with other neurons or muscle tissue

43
Q

Receptors

A

Proteins to which neurotransmitters bind to cause an impulse to be sent

44
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Type of neurotransmitter removed from the synaptic cleft by enzyme degradation

45
Q

Noradrenaline

A

Type of neurotransmitter removed from the synaptic cleft by reabsorption

46
Q

Excitatory

A

A signal that causes an impulse to be triggered

47
Q

Inhibitory

A

Weak signals that do not cause an impulse to be triggered

48
Q

Threshold

A

The name given to the minimum number of neurotransmitters that must attach to receptors in order to transmit an impulse

49
Q

Summation

A

When a series of weak stimuli can release enough neurotransmitter to trigger an impulse

50
Q

Endorphins

A

Neurotransmitters that stimulate neurons involved in reducing the intensity of pain

51
Q

Dopamine

A

Neurotransmitter that induces feelings of pleasure and reinforces particular behaviour by activating the reward pathway in the brain.

52
Q

The reward pathway

A

Pathway in the brain that is activated when an individual engages in a behaviour that is beneficial to them, for example eating when hungry

53
Q

Agonists

A

Chemicals that bind to and stimulate specific receptors mimicking the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.

54
Q

Antagonists

A

Chemicals that bind to specific receptors blocking the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.

55
Q

Recreational drugs

A

Drugs such as cocaine, cannabis, MDMA, nicotine and alcohol

56
Q

Drug Addiction

A

Caused by repeated use of drugs that act as antagonists.

57
Q

Drug Tolerance

A

Caused by repeated use of drugs that act as agonists.

58
Q

Epithelial cells

A

Cells that form a physical barrier to pathogens, e.g. in skin or the lining of the intestine

59
Q

Pathogen

A

A bacterium, virus or other organism that can cause disease

60
Q

Chemical secretions

A

Secretions include tears, saliva, mucus and stomach acid

61
Q

The inflammatory response

A

The body’s first response at the site of an injury

62
Q

Histamine

A

Chemical released by mast cells causing vasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries

63
Q

Phagocytes

A

White blood cells capable of carrying out phagocytosis

64
Q

Phagocytosis

A

The process where a white blood cell engulfs and destroys a pathogen

65
Q

Lysosomes

A

Cell organelles that contain digestive enzymes used in phagocytosis

66
Q

Cytokines

A

Protein molecules that act as a signal to specific white blood cells causing them to accumulate at the site of infection.

67
Q

Lymphocytes

A

White blood cells involved in the specific immune response.

68
Q

Antigens

A

Molecules, often proteins located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response.

69
Q

Clonal population

A

A population of identical lymphocytes formed by repeated division

70
Q

B lymphocytes

A

These lymphocytes produce antibodies against antigens and this leads to the destruction of the pathogen

71
Q

Antibodies

A

Y-shaped proteins that have receptor binding sites specific to a particular antigen on a pathogen

72
Q

Allergic reaction

A

Hyper-sensitive response to antigens on substances that are harmless to the body

73
Q

T lymphocytes

A

Lymphocytes that destroy infected body cells by recognising antigens of the pathogen on the cell membrane and inducing apoptosis

74
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

75
Q

Self-antigens

A

Antigens on the body’s own cells

76
Q

Non-self-antigens

A

Antigens found on infected cells

77
Q

Auto-immune disease

A

Immune system failure leads to T lymphocytes attacking the body’s own self-antigens e.g. in Type I Diabetes

78
Q

Memory cells

A

B and T lymphocytes that survive in the body long term

79
Q

Secondary response

A

On secondary exposure to an antigen, the antibody production is greater and more rapid than during the primary response.

80
Q

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

A

Virus that attacks and destroys T lymphocytes and causes depletion of T lymphocytes which leads to the development of AIDS

81
Q

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

A

Individuals with this disease have a weakened immune system and so are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections.

82
Q

Vaccination

A

A medical treatment to produce immunity against a disease, using antigens from infectious pathogens

83
Q

Immunity

A

The ability of the body to resist infection

84
Q

Adjuvant

A

A substance which makes the vaccine more effective, so enhancing the immune response.

85
Q

Herd immunity

A

When a large percentage of a population is immunised - important in reducing the spread of diseases

86
Q

The herd immunity threshold

A

This depends on the type of disease, the effectiveness of the vaccine and the density of the population

87
Q

Vaccination programmes

A

Medical interventions where mass vaccinations take place to establish herd immunity in a population

88
Q

Antigenic variation

A

Some pathogens can change their antigens, e.g. Influenza. This means that memory cells are not effective against them.

89
Q

Clinical trials

A

Medical research carried out to establish the safety and effectiveness of drugs and vaccines before being licensed for use

90
Q

Randomised

A

Subjects in clinical trials are divided into groups in a random way to reduce bias in the distribution of characteristics such as age and gender

91
Q

Double-blind

A

When neither the subjects nor the researchers know which group subjects are in to prevent biased interpretation of the results

92
Q

Placebo

A

A substitute for the drug being tested in a clinical trial - it will not cause the desired effect and therefore is used as a control to ensure valid comparisons

93
Q

Large group size in a trial

A

Reduces experimental error and allows researchers to determine if differences between groups are statistically significant

CfE Higher Human (3 decks)

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