Unit 3 - Nervous & Endocrine Systems Flashcards
The nervous system controls these three types of cells via nerve impulses?
Neurons/ nerve cells
Muscle cells
Gland cells
The three major/general overlapping functions of the nervous system?
- Receives sensory input (uses sensory receptors to monitor changes (stimuli) in and outside the body)
- Integration (processes sensory input and makes “decisions” about what should be done)
- Sends out motor output (muscles respond by contracting and glands respond by secreting a chemical product (sweat, hormones, etc))
The major communication and controlling system of the body?
Nervous system
Nervous system vs. Endocrine system
- Means of communication and regulation?
- Transport of communication?
- Speed of communication?
- Duration of effects?
- NS: nerve impulses; ES: hormones
- NS: neurons/ nerve cells; ES: the blood
- NS: fast; ES: slow
- NS: short-lasting; ES: long-lasting
The two major divisions of the Nervous System?
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
CNS consists of?
Brain and spinal cord
PNS consists of?
Cranial nerves, spinal nerves and ganglia (clusters of cell bodies)
Divisions of the PNS?
Sensory/afferent division and Motor/efferent division
Sensory/afferent division of PNS consists of?
Neurons (in nerves) that convey impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
The sensory/afferent division of the PNS includes these three sensory components?
General somatic sensory, special sensory, and visceral sensory
General somatic senses
Location?
Sensation?
Located throughout the body, mainly associated with receptors located in the skin and joint-related structures
Sensations include touch, pressure, pain, vibration, temperature, and proprioception
What is proprioception?
The sense of body position and movement that’s provided by receptors that detect stretch in joint-related structures (tendons, skeletal muscle, joint capsules)
Special senses
Location?
Sensation?
Located in the head
Sensations include vision, hearing, olfaction, and equilibrium (sense of balance related to receptors in the inner ear)
Visceral sensory?
Association?
Sensation?
Associated with internal organs
Sensations include pain, stretch (distension), nausea, and hunger
Motor/efferent division of PNS consists of?
Neurons (in nerves) that transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
Two subdivisions of the motor/efferent division of PNS?
Somatic/voluntary motor and visceral/involuntary motor
Somatic motor/ voluntary nervous system provides for the stimulation of all ______?
Skeletal muscle (somatic effectors)
Visceral motor/ involuntary/ autonomic nervous system provides for the control of ______?
Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands (visceral effectors)
Subdivisions of the Involuntary/ autonomic/ visceral motor nervous system?
Parasympathetic division and sympathetic division
______ cells = _____ cells = Neuroglia
Supporting; Glial
Supporting cells
a. Support, _______ and protect neurons
b. Can or cannot produce nerve impulses?
c. More neurons or supporting cells in the body?
d. Can mitosis (cell division) occur?
a. Insulates
b. Cannot
c. Supporting cells
d. Yes (glial cells are capable of mitosis)
Found only in the CNS and they form myelin sheaths?
Oligodendrocytes
Found only in the CNS; the most abundant type of glial cell.
Help recycle ________, take up and release ____ to help maintain the proper _____ environment for for neurons, help form ______ between neurons, and may be involved with ______?
Astrocytes
Neurotransmitters; ions; ionic; synapses; memory
Found only in the PNS where they form myelin sheaths?
Schwann cells/ Neurolemmocytes
Electrical signals conducted by neurons are called _____ or ______?
Nerve impulses or action potentials
Neurons/ nerve cells
a. ______of neurons occur in the brain alone?
b. Lifespan of neurons?
c. Capable of mitosis?
d. Neurons cannot survive without _____?
a. Billions
b. Extreme longevity
c. Not capable of mitosis
d. Oxygen
Enlarged part of a neuron that contains the nucleus?
Cell body (soma)
The “receptive sites” of a neuron; receives signals from other neurons then conducts those signals toward the cell body?
Dendrites
Singular process of a neuron that transmits impulses away from the cell body and towards dendrites of another neuron?
Axon
A long axon is called?
Nerve fiber
These provide axons with structural support and aid in the transport of beneficial substances to and from the cell body (axonal transport)?
Microtubules
Some viruses can use axonal transport to move up and down the length of neurons, namely _____ and ______?
The rabies virus and the herpes zoster virus
Axons with larger diameters ___________ faster than those with smaller diameters?
Conduct impulses
When nerve impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the release of __________ from _________ that are located within the terminals?
Neurotransmitters; synaptic vesicles
Junction where the axon terminals meet with another neuron?
Synapse
The neuron that transmits impulses toward the synapse?
Presynaptic neuron
The second neuron on the other side of the synaptic cleft that is controlled by the first neuron?
Postsynaptic neuron
Neuron-neuron synapse that occur between the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron is called a _________ synapse?
Axodendritic synapse
Synapses that occur between axon terminals of presynaptic neurons and cell bodies of postsynaptic neurons are called?
Axosomatic synapses
Many nerve fibers/ axons in the PNS and CNS are covered with a fatty, white, lipoprotein wrapping called ______?
Myelin sheath
Myelin insulates axons and thereby _______________ down their length?
Increases the speed of impulse conduction
Axons that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses __________ than those that do not?
More efficiently and much faster
An autoimmune disease that involves the gradual progressive destruction of myelin sheaths that surround the axons in the CNS?
Subsequently, the person may exhibit what problems?
Multiple sclerosis
Sensory and/or muscular problems
Can neurons go through mitosis?
They have no appreciable capacity for mitosis
Axon regeneration can only occur if the ______ of the injured neuron survives?
Cell body
Since no glial cells in the CNS can form regeneration tubes to guide axon sprouts, there is very little _____________ after injury to the spinal cord or brain?
Axonal regeneration
Structural classification is based on the _________ that extends directly from the cell body?
Number of processes (dendrites and axon)
The three structural types of neurons?
Unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar
Structurally, over 99% of neurons are ________ neurons?
Multipolar (many dendrites and one axon)
Functional classification of neurons is based on __________?
The direction nerve impulses travel relative to the CNS
The three functional classes of neurons?
Sensory/ Afferent neurons
Motor/ Efferent neurons
Interneurons/ Association neurons
These neurons transmit impulses towards the CNS from sensory receptors?
Sensory/Afferent neurons
Neurons that convey impulses away from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands)?
Motor/Efferent neurons
Motor neurons form synapses with muscle cells and gland cells, thereby enabling them to promote ______ or _______?
Muscular contraction or glandular secretion
Somatic motor neurons transmit signals to _____?
Skeletal muscle
Visceral motor neurons transmit signals to ____, ______, and ________?
Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
Neurons that lie between sensory and motor neurons; only located in the CNS; responsible for the complexity of the nervous system?
Interneurons/ Association neurons
Functionally, over 99% of neurons are _________?
Association neurons/ interneurons
Rapid, automatic motor responses to stimuli?
Reflexes
Ex: constriction of pupils when the eyes are exposed to bright light, jerking your hand away when you touch something hot
Reflexes that regulate the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, the heart and glands?
Autonomic/Visceral reflexes
Ex: pupillary reflex, salivary reflex
Reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscle?
Somatic reflexes
Ex: patellar/knee jerk
Reflexes over neural pathways are called ______?
Reflex arcs
All reflex arcs include these five components?
- a sensory receptor
- a sensory/afferent neuron
- an integration center in the CNS
- a motor/efferent neuron
- an effector organ (muscle or gland)
The integration center in the CNS may consist of the ________ of a sensory neuron with a motor neuron OR may involve one or many __________ between a sensory neuron with a motor neuron?
Direct synapse; association neurons/interneurons
Relative to the CNS, many reflexes only involve the ________? But some do involve the brain such as the ________ reflex?
Spinal cord; photopupillary reflex
How can you classify reflexes?
According to how many synapses occur on the integration center (CNS)
This type of reflex involves the direct synapse of a sensory neuron with a motor neuron?
Ex: the knee-jerk reflex
Monosynaptic reflex (Help maintain balance and posture)
This reflex involves one or more association neurons in the CNS that are positioned between the incoming sensory neuron and outgoing motor neuron?
Polysynaptic reflex
If reflexes are exaggerated, distorted, or absent _________ are indicated?
Nervous system disorders
Clusters of neuron cell bodies located in the CNS; are grey in color because there is not much myelin present?
Nuclei (singular = nucleus)
Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS?
Ganglia (singular = ganglion)
Bundle of nerve fibers/axons on the CNS; myelinated so they are white in color?
Tract
Bundle of nerve fibers/ axons in the PNS; myelinated therefore they are white in color?
Nerve
Portion of CNS containing little myelin?
Grey matter
Portion of CNS containing a large amount of myelin?
White matter
The four major regions/ subdivisions of the brain?
Cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum
Cerebrum consists of?
Left and right cerebral hemispheres
Ridges on the surface of cerebral hemispheres?
Gyri (singular = gurus)
Grooves on surface of cerebrum include _____ and ______?
Sulci (singular = sulcus)
and Fissures
The fissure that separates the left and right hemispheres?
Longitudinal
Four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere?
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Groove that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?
Central sulcus
Groove that separates the temporal lobe from the the frontal and parietal lobes?
Lateral sulcus
Ridge immediately in front of the central sulcus; is in the posterior part of the frontal lobe?
Precentral sulcus
Ridge immediately behind the central sulcus; in the anterior part of the parietal lobe?
Postcentral gyrus
The outer layer of gray matter of the cerebrum that contains billions of cell bodies of associated neurons; the “executive suite” and the home of the “conscious mind”?
Cerebral cortex
What are the functions of the billions of neurons in the cerebral cortex?
Speech, memory, logic, consciousness, interpretation of sensations, and willful control of skeletal muscles
Name the three kinds of functional areas that are recognized on the cerebral cortex?
Sensory areas, association areas, and motor areas
Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex provide for?
Conscious awareness of sensations
Association areas of the cerebral cortex process?
Diverse information to enable purposeful action
Motor areas of the cerebral cortex control?
Voluntary motor functions (control skeletal muscle)
This area is located on the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe of the cerebral hemisphere; receives information concerned with the general somatic senses (touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, and proprioception)
Primary somatosensory cortex
The sensory information that reaches the primary somatosensory cortex does so via nerve fibers of the _______ tract (located in the brain and spinal cord)?
Spinothalamic tract
The neurons of the primary somatosensory cortex are capable of processing incoming sensory information and identifying __________?
The precise area of the body being stimulated
The pathway of general somatic sensory info to the cortex is _________ on nature?
Contralateral (right hemisphere receives somatic sensory information from the left side of the body and the left hemisphere recovers info from the right side of the body)
Damage to the primary somatosensory cortex causes deficits in the consciousness of ________?
General somatic sensations
Name the three kinds of functional areas that are recognized on the cerebral cortex?
Sensory areas, association areas, and motor areas
Association areas of the cerebral cortex process?
Diverse information to enable purposeful action
Motor areas of the cerebral cortex control?
Voluntary motor functions (control skeletal muscle)
This area is located on the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe of the cerebral hemisphere; receives information concerned with the general somatic senses (touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, and proprioception)
Primary somatosensory cortex
The sensory information that reaches the primary somatosensory cortex does so via nerve fibers of the _______ tract (located in the brain and spinal cord)?
Spinothalamic tract
The neurons of the primary somatosensory cortex are capable of processing incoming sensory information and identifying __________?
The precise area of the body being stimulated
The pathway of general somatic sensory info to the cortex is _________ on nature?
Contralateral (right hemisphere receives somatic sensory information from the left side of the body and the left hemisphere recovers info from the right side of the body)
Damage to the primary somatosensory cortex causes deficits in the consciousness of ________?
General somatic sensations
This area is located in the occipital lobe; receives visual information that originates on the _____ of the eye; if this area is destroyed, _________ results?
Primary visual cortex
Retina
Blindness
This area is located in the temporal lobe; provides for conscious awareness of sound; receive signals that originate in the ______ of the inner ear?
Primary auditory cortex
Cochlea
This area occupies much of the frontal lobe?
Prefrontal cortex
(Associated with thinking, reasoning, judgement, problem solving, emotions, reasoning, remembering and recalling information, social skills, understanding and abstract conceptualization)
This area is located on the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe; provides for conscious control of ______?
Primary motor cortex
Skeletal muscles
Axons (nerve fibers) extending from the neuron cell bodies in the primary motor area form a major voluntary motor tract named the ___________ tract?
Pyramidal/corticospinal tract
The body is represented spatially on the primary motor cortex of each hemisphere meaning?
The neurons that control hand movement are in one part of the primary motor cortex and those that control the foot are in another place and so on
The left hemisphere has greater involvement with?
Language abilities, math and logic
The right hemisphere is more involved with?
Emotion and artistic and musical skills
Underlies the cerebral cortex and makes up most of the interior of the cerebrum; is composed of?
Cerebral white matter;
Myelinated fiber tracts
The most important myelinated tract of the brain? What is its purpose?
Corpus callosum; connects the two cerebral hemispheres allowing them to communicate and act as a whole
A group of nuclei located deep within the cerebrum; also known as “islands of grey matter”?
Basal ganglia - help regulate skeletal muscle activity at the subconscious level
Specific members of the basal ganglia?
Caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus
Disorders of the basal nuclei result in ________? Two such disorders are?
Dyskinesia (problems with movement)
Huntington’s disease and Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson’s disease actually involves both certain basal ganglia and a nucleus in the midbrain called the _________?
Substantia nigra
Parkinson’s disease results from degeneration of the neuron cell bodies in the substantia nigra that produce the neurotransmitter _________?
Dopamine
A ventricle is a space/chamber that contains _________?
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The three main parts of the diencephalon?
Thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland
The thalamus and hypothalamus form the borders of the ________?
Third ventricle
Contains about a dozen nuclei, each of which sends axons to particular portions of the cerebral cortex; the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex?
Thalamus
All sensory impulses except for those associated with olfaction/smell pass through the ______ before each in the cortex?
Thalamus
Is located below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland/hypophysis?
Hypothalamus
The pituitary gland/ hypophysis hangs from the floor of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk called _______?
Infundibulum
Hypothalamus
- Has rounded bumps named _________ bulge from its floor
- Has ___ nuclei
- Directs activity of the _____
- Regulates _______
- Is involved in the control of _________
- Is an important component to the _____ system
- Is involved with ______ and _______
- Helps regulate sleep wake cycles in conjunction with the ________
- Controls the _______ and regulates much of the ________ system
- Mammillary bodies
- 12
- autonomic nervous system
- Body temperature
- Emotional responses
- Limbic system
- Thirst and hunger
- Pineal gland
- Pituitary gland; endocrine system
The hypothalamus makes these three hormones?
- “Releasing” and “inhibiting” hormones (affect the activity of the anterior pituitary gland)
- Oxytocin (promotes uterine smooth muscle contractions)
- Antidiuretic hormone/ADH (promotes water conservation by kidney tubules *water FROM kidneys TO blood)
Secretes the hormone melatonin which has a influence on mood and also helps the sleep-wake cycle/rhythm?
Pineal gland
The uppermost part of the brain stem?
Midbrain
These nuclei produce and release dopamine to help regulate the basal nuclei?
Substantia nigra
A tiny canal that connects the third ventricle in the diencephalon to the forth ventricle?
Cerebral aqueduct
4 bumpy reflex related nuclei on dorsal surface of midbrain?
Corpora quadrigemina
Forms a bulge in the brain stem between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata?
Contains some centers involved with control of ________?
Dorsally, it is separated from the cerebellum by the ________?
Pons
Breathing
Fourth ventricle
Medulla oblongata
- Is the most _______ part of brain stem
- Gives rise to visceral/autonomic motor fibers/axons of the ________
- Contains nuclei called ______
- inferior
- Vagus nerve
- Centers
The three most important medullary centers?
- Cardiac center (controls the heart rate)
- vasomotor center (regulates blood pressure by controlling smooth muscle)
- medullary respiratory center (controls the rhythm and rate of breathing)
The area of the medulla oblongata where the fibers of the corticospinal/ pyramidal tract cross over to the oppsite side of the brain?
Decussation of the pyramids
The white matter located in the cerebellum is called?
Arbor vitae
Functionally the cerebellum provides for?
Subconscious control of skeletal muscle activity in relation to balance, equilibrium, coordination, and posture
The cerebellum is able to coordinate body movements because it receives?
- Info from the inner ear
- Info on body posting and movement from proprioceptors on joint related structures
- Info on muscle control from the cerebral cortex
Networks of neurons that function together even though widely scattered throughout the brain; name them?
Functional brain systems; limbic and reticular formation
The limbic system is involved with _____ and _______?
Emotion and memory
Name the four specific cerebral components of the limbic system?
Amygdala
Cingulate gyrus
Hippocampus
Fornix
The amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and hypothalamic components are related to _______ while the hippocampus is largely associated with _______?
Emotions; memories
Consists of components of the brain that control visceral responses such as changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and digestive activity?
Reticular formation
Much of the output from the Limbic system is relayed from ______ to the _______?
Hypothalamus to the reticular formation
It’s central core of clustered neurons is located in the brain stem?
Reticular formation
An aspect of the reticular formation consisting of neurons that send a continuous stream of impulses from the brain stem through the thalamus and to the cerebral cortex; is responsible for maintaining an alert _____ and _______?
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Cerebral cortex and consciousness
General anesthesia, alcohol, tranquilizers, and sleep-inducing drugs suppress the ____ and leads to loss of alertness and consciousness?
Knockout blows produce the same effect because they _____ the core of the RAS on the brain stem?
Severe injury to the RAS can result in _____?
RAS (reticular activating system)
Twist
Coma
Protection of the brain is provided by?
Bones
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
The blood brain-barrier
Three connective tissue membranes that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord?
Meninges
Name the meningeal layers from outermost to innermost?
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
The outermost and toughest of the meninges; ______- layered around the brain (called _______) and ______- layered around the spinal cord ( called ______)?
Dura mater
Double-layered (cranial dura mater)
Single-layered (spinal dura mater)
In the cranium, the _____ layer of the dura mater is attached to the internal surfaces of some bones while the _____layer is covering the brain?
Periosteal; meningeal
Blood-filled passages between the portions of the cranial dura mater that act as veins in that the receive deoxygenated blood?
Specific example: superior sagittal sinus
Dural sinuses
A cerebrospinal fluid filled space that lies deep to the arachnoid, between the arachnoid and pia mater?
Subarachnoid space
The subarachnoid space surrounds the _____?
Entire CNS
Inflammation of the meninges caused by a bacterial or viral infection?
If the infection and inflammation spread to the brain, then the condition is called ____?
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Acquiring a sample of CSF from the portion of the subarachnoid space below the end of the spinal cord is called a ______ or _______?
Spinal tap or a lumbar puncture
Where is cerebrospinal fluid located?
In the ventricles of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space
The main function of CSF?
To serve as a liquid cushion for the brain and spinal cord, helping to protect them from physical trauma
CSF is formed from the blood by _____?
Choroid plexuses (located in all four ventricles)
Circulation of CSF?
From the lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramen and into the third ventricle then passes through the cerebral aqueduct and into the forth ventricle and then goes into the subarachnoid space and then into the central canal. When the CSF leaves the subarachnoid space it releases into Dural sinuses (returning to blood)
A condition when something obstructs the drainage of CSF or if it is over produced, it begins to accumulate in the subarachnoid space and or ventricles exerting pressure on the brain?
Who is more susceptible to brain damage?
Hydrocephalus
Adults because the bones are fully fused exerting the pressure inward where newborns fontanelles are present allowing the skull to expand outward
Composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body; helps separate neurons of the brain from many potentially harmful substances in the bloodstream?
Blood-brain barrier
The blood-brain barrier is ineffective against ______ such as nicotine, alcohol, and anesthetics so these substances can reach and affect the brain?
Fat-soluble chemicals
The spinal cord extends from the __________ of the skull to the level of the __________ vertebra?
Medulla oblongata; 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebrae
Major functions of the spinal cord?
- via the spinal nerves, the spinal cord is involved in the sensory and motor innervation of all the body below the head
- provides a two way conduction pathway to and from the brain
- is a major reflex integration center
Immediately external to the spinal dura mater is the ______? It’s filled with?
Epidural space; fat and blood vessels
The spinal cord ends at the ______?
1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra
The ______ extends all the way down to the end of the vertebral column?
The ______ and ______ are accessible inferior to the spinal cord?
Meninges;
Subarachnoid space and cerebrospinal fluid
In a lumbar puncture (or spinal tap), a needle is inserted between the laminae of ___ or ______ and into the ________?
L3 and L4 or L4 and L5; subarachnoid space
There are ___ pairs of spinal nerves?
31
Because spinal nerves are not actually part of the spinal cord, spinal nerves are technically organs of the ____?
PNS
A collection of spinal nerve roots located below the spinal cord in the inferior part of the vertebral canal?
Cauda equina
Gray matter of the spinal cord
- In a cross section, looks like an _____ or a ____.
- The two posterior projections of gray matter are _______.
- The two anterior projections are the _______.
- The crossbar of the H is called ______.
- H or a butterfly
- Dorsal (posterior) gray horns
- Ventral (anterior) gray horns
- Gray commissure
The anterior/ventral gray horns contain the cell bodies of ______ whose axons extend away from the spinal cord (via ventral anterior roots) and to skeletal muscles (via spinal nerves) ?
Somatic motor neurons
Cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in enlarged areas on the dorsal root called ____?
Dorsal root ganglia
The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in the ______?
Anterior (ventral) gray horns
A dorsal root is entirely _____ in nature and a ventral root is entirely _____ in nature the spinal nerve itself is ______.
Dorsal - sensory
Ventral- motor
Spinal nerve- mixed (both motor and sensory)
White matter of the spinal cord consists of ______?
Myelinated tracts
White matter is divided into these three sections of the spinal cord?
The posterior (dorsal) white column funiculus, the anterior (ventral) white column funiculus, lateral white column funiculus
Ascending tracts consist of nerve fibers that transmit ________ information up the spinal cord to the brain? Example?
Descending tracts consist of nerve fibers that convey _____ signals down through the brain and spinal cord? Example?
Afferent/sensory; the spinothalamic tract
Motor/efferent; the corticospinal/ pyramidal tract
The more general term for tracts and nerves?
Nervous system “pathways”
Most pathways ____ somewhere in the CNS?
Decussate (cross over one another to the other side of the CNS)
Most pathways consist of a “chain” of only ____ or ____ neurons?
2 or 3
Ascending pathways conduct _____ impulses up to the brain?
General somatic sensory
The spinothalamic pathway is an ascending pathway that conveys impulses related to?
Touch, pressure and pain
Descending pathways convey _____ impulses down from the brain?
Motor
The corticospinal/pyramidal pathway provides for precise control of?
Skeletal muscles
The corticospinal/pyramidal tract begins in the _______ and extends downward with decussation (cross over) occurring in the ____?
Primary motor cortex; medulla oblongata
Involves only slight brain injury; no permanent brain damage?
Concussion
Significant damage to the brain stem always results in a ______ because of injury to the _____?
Coma; reticular activating system
After blows to the head, bleeding from ruptured vessels may result in a _______?
Cerebral hematoma
Brain swelling due to an inflammatory response to injury?
Cerebral edema
Cerebrovascular accident = CVA = stroke = ?
Brain attack
CVAs occur when blood flow to an area of the brain is blocked and _____?
Brain tissue (neurons) die because of oxygen deprivation
The deprivation of blood to any tissue is called?
Ischemia
Most strokes are caused by the blockage of _____?
A blood vessel by a blood clot
After a CVA (stroke), it is often possible to determine the area of brain damage by observing the patient.
Ex: if a stroke victim has left side paralysis, the ____ of the _____ cerebral hemisphere would be damaged?
Primary motor cortex;right
Involve brief restrictions of blood flow to parts of the brain; the brain is not deprived of oxygen long enough to be permanently damaged?
Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)
A progressive degenerative disease of the brain that ultimately results in dementia?
Involves structural changes in the brain particularly in those areas of the ________ concerned with ________ and in the _______?
Macroscopic changes include?
Alzheimer’s disease
Cerebral cortex; thinking and memory; hippocampus
Decrease in synaptic connections, the formation of abnormal protein deposits between neurons, and formation of neurofibullar tangles
If the spinal cord is severed at the _________ of the spinal cord, the lower limbs will be paralyzed but not the upper limbs, this condition is called ______?
Thoracic or lumbar levels; paraplegia
If the spinal cord is crushed or transected in the _____ region all four limbs would be paralyzed, this condition is called _______?
Cervical region; quadriplegia
A congenital defect characterized by incomplete formation of the ________?
Spina bifida; vertebral arches (some laminae are absent)
The most common variety of spina bifida; the meninges around the spinal cord are expanded into a bag-like cyst called ________ which protrudes from the lumbar and or/sacral regions of the infants spine?
Spina bifida cystica; meningocele
Cerebral palsy is a congenital condition in which skeletal muscles are poorly controlled or paralyzed because of damage to the ______?
The brain damage results from factors that interfered with the _________ during fetal development or a difficult delivery?
Motor cortex, basal ganglia, or cerebellum
Supply of blood to muscle-controlling parts of the brain
Involves degeneration of the pyramidal/corticospinal tracts in the spinal cord and motor nuclei in the brain resulting in the lack of normal muscle stimulation and the wasting of the skeletal muscles; as the pyramidal tracts degenerate, scar tissue forms in the lateral parts of the spinal cord where these tracts lie?
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/ Lou Gehrig’s disease
The maturation of the nervous system that occurs through childhood reflects the progressive ________ of axons?
Myelination and thickening of
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes these structural components?
Sensory receptors, motor endings, ganglia, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves
Structures that detect changes (stimuli - light, pressure, temperature) in the internal and external environments?
Sensory receptors
Stimulation of the sensory receptors leads to the generation of nerve impulses in sensory neurons
which transmit information ______?
To the CNS
Nerve impulses from sensory neurons are not translated into conscious sensations until they arrive at and are processed by the ________; because this is able to determine the original (initial) point of stimulation?
Cerebral cortex
The three main ways to classify sensory receptors?
- By the type of stimulus they detect
- By their location
- By their structure
Receptors that generate nerve impulses in sensory neurons when they are deformed by mechanical forces such as touch, pressure, vibrations or stretch; include certain receptors in the skin and auditory and equilibrium receptors in the ear?
Mechanoreceptors
Receptors sensitive to changes in temperature?
Thermoreceptors
Receptors that detect light; are the rods and cones of the retina?
Photoreceptors
Receptors that detect chemicals; include gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and receptors that respond to changes in blood chemistry?
Chemoreceptors
Receptors that respond to potentially or actually damaging stimuli that result in pain?
Nociceptors
Receptors that detect stretch (changes in tension) in these joint-related structures, providing the CNS related to body position and movement?
Examples?
Important destinations of this sensory input?
Proprioceptors
Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs and joint kinesthetic receptors
Cerebellum and brain stem
The structurally simplest receptors; are the dendrite endings of sensory neurons; are associated with _________?
Simple receptors; general somatic sensations
Structurally complicated receptor cells and structures that provide for the special senses?
Complex receptors
Sensations of pain, pressure, touch, vibration, temperature and stretch associated with skin, skeletal muscle and joints?
General somatic senses
Sensations provided by visceral sensory neurons that innervate internal organs and detect stretch, temperature, physical and chemical irritation?
Gives rise to sensations of_____?
Visceral sensations
Fullness, nausea, heat, and pain
People suffering from visceral pain often perceive this pain to be _____ in origin; that is, as if the pain originated from the skin or outer part of the body; this event is called ______?
Somatic; referred pain
The cause of referred pain is not fully understood but it is understood that both the affected internal organ and the region of the skin or body wall to which the pain is referred are _______?
Innervated by the same segments of the spinal cord
Your special senses include?
Vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell
The axon terminals of motor neurons that innervate effectors (muscles and glands) are called _____?
Motor endings
Somatic motor endings are axon terminals that stimulate skeletal muscle at ________ junctions or motor end ______?
Neuromuscular ; plates
Groups or clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS?
Examples?
Ganglia (singular= ganglion)
Dorsal root ganglia- cell bodies of sensory neurons in dorsal root
Autonomic ganglia- cell bodies of visceral motor neurons of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS
Each axon/nerve fiber is surrounded by a wrapping called _______?
Endoneurium
A fascicle (group of axons in small bundle) are wrapped in a connective tissue called _______?
Perineurium
The connective tissue sheath that surrounds the entire nerve is called ________?
Epineurium
Nerve = nerve _____
Nerve fibers = ______
Nerves = _________
Cells
Axons
Bundles of axon/nerve fibers
All spinal nerves are _____ nerves?
Mixed (have both sensory and motor fibers)
There are ____ pairs of cranial nerves?
Only one pair extends into the thoracic and abdominal cavities: ________?
Most cranial nerves are mixed but 2 are entirely sensory: _____ and ______?
12
Vagus nerves
Olfactory and optic nerves
This cranial nerve carries signals only associated with the sense of smell?
Olfactory nerve
This cranial nerve provides for vision; entirely sensory?
Optic nerve
The cranial nerve that innervate to four of the six eye muscles (superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique); its autonomic (visceral) fibers innervate the smooth muscle of the eye to constrict the pupil and the eyes ______ muscle (alters the shape of the lens)
Oculomotor nerve; ciliary muscle
The cranial nerve that innervates the superior oblique?
Trochlear nerve
This cranial nerve has three divisions _____, _____ and ______; provides sensory input from the skin of the face?
Trigeminal nerve
Divisions- the ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular divisions
A condition that involves degeneration and loss of myelin sheaths that wrap around sensory fibers of the trigeminal nerve; results in unpredictable bouts of extreme pain?
Tic douloureux
Cranial nerve that supplies the lateral rectus (abducts the eye)?
Abducens nerve
Cranial nerve that supplies the muscle of facial expression (somatic); inflammation or damage to this nerve can cause Bell’s palsy (paralysis of facial muscles); provides visceral motor output to ______ and ______ ; provides sensory output to tongue?
Facial nerve; lacrimal glands and salivary glands
It’s ____ division carries impulses associated with equilibrium and arises from receptors in the vestibule and semicircular canals; its ______division covets impulses associated with hearing arises from the cochlea?
Vestibulocochlear
Vestibular; cochlear
Cranial nerve that supplies part of the tongue; its _____ nerve fibers supply some musculature of the pharynx that is associated with swallowing?
Glossopharyngeal
Somatic
It’s ______ motor fibers extend all the way to the abdominal and thoracic cavities; important part of the ___________ nervous system; its motor fibers promote _____ yet slow the ______; its _____ motor fibers innervate musculature associated with ______ and ______?
Visceral Parasympathetic Digestive activity; heart rate Somatic Swallowing and vocalization
Cranial nerve that innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles?
Accessory nerve
The somatic motor fibers of this cranial nerve supply the skeletal muscles of the tongue?
Hypoglossal nerve
How many pairs of spinal nerves? Name them?
31 pairs total
8 pairs - cervical 12 pairs - thoracic 5 pairs - lumbar 5 pairs - sacral 1 pair - coccygeal
Dorsal root contains only ____ fibers, ventral root contain only ______ fibers where as the spinal nerve itself is ______?
Sensory; motor; mixed
Rami have ____ fibers?
Mixed (both sensory and motor)
The dorsal rami of spinal nerves are only responsible for innervating the _______?
Posterior trunk and neck
The ventral rami are larger than the dorsal rami because they contain more fibers that are needed for the innervation of the _________?
Lateral and anterior trunk and the upper and lower limbs
The ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves extend between the ribs as ________?
Intercostal nerves
All of the nerve plexuses are derived from the ________ of spinal nerves; all the plexuses and specific nerves derived from them are _______?
Ventral rami; mixed (contain both sensory and motor fibers)
Located deep in the neck; gives rise to the phrenic nerve which courses through the thoracic cavity to innervate the diaphragm?
Cervical plexus
Serves the sensory and motor needs of the upper limb by giving rise to the musculocutaneous, radial, median and ulnar nerves?
Brachial plexus
Innervates most of the skeletal muscles in the anterior forearm (flexor a of wrist and fingers) also responsible for movement of the thumb; nerve often severed in wrist-slashing suicide attempts; the inflammation associated with carpal tunnel syndrome leads to compression of this nerve?
Median nerve
Courses through the medial aspect of the arm and forearm; the “funny bone” sensation results from hitting this nerve where it courses between the skin and medial epicondyle of the humerus?
Ulnar nerve
Courses through the arm and the lateral aspect of the forearm; innervates most of the skeletal muscles in the posterior forearm (extensors of the wrist and fingers); injuries to this nerve result in “wrist drop” the inability to extend the wrist?
Radial nerve
Gives rise to the femoral nerve whose somatic nerve fibers innervate the anterior thigh muscles, including the ________ muscle group?
Lumbar plexus; quadriceps femoris
Serves the sensory and motor needs of the posterior aspect of the lower limb; gives rise to the sciatic nerve?
Sacral plexus
The sciatic nerve is the ______ nerve in the body and supplies the ______ including the _______ muscle group. Near the popliteal region the sciatic nerve splits into the ______ nerve and the ______ nerve?
Thickest; posterior thigh; hamstring; tibial and common peroneal/fibular nerve
Irritation of the sciatic nerve that is often characterized by a stabbing pain along the length of this nerve?
Sciatica
The patch of skin innervated by the cutaneous sensory fibers of a single spinal nerve?
These have clinical significance to: ?
Dermatome;
- pinpointing the level of spinal cord injuries
- examining flare-ups of shingles
A viral infection of sensory neurons serving the skin; stems from childhood infection of chickenpox where the virus remains dormant in the ________; when the immune system weakens, the virus travels back to the skin via _______?
Shingles (herpes zoster); dorsal root ganglia; axon transport
Relate to the sensory innervation of the brains arteries by the trigeminal nerve; associated with dilatation of cerebral arteries and the subsequent compression and irritation of sensory nerve endings of the trigeminal nerve?
Migraine headaches
Autonomic nervous system
- Is the ________ subdivision of the peripheral nervous system
- Consists of ______ motor neurons and autonomic ganglia
- It is also called the ______ nervous system
- Regulates the activity of _______, _______ and ______
- So the effectors of the ANS are _______, ______, ________ and they regulate ________?
- Visceral motor
- Visceral (autonomic)
- Involuntary
- Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands
- Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands; heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activity
Effectors regulated:
By the somatic (visceral) motor nervous system- ?
By the autonomic (visceral) nervous system- ?
Somatic- skeletal muscle
Autonomic- cardiac, muscle, smooth muscle and glands
The cell body of each motor neuron of the somatic motor nervous system is located in the _____ and the axons are located in the ______?
CNS; PNS
In the ANS, there is a ___ motor neurons that transmits signals from the CNS to a visceral organ in the PNS?
Chain of two
The first neuron of a chain of two neurons in the ANS has a cell body located in the ____; its axon called the ______ leaves the CNS and extends to an autonomic ganglion that contains the cell body of the second neuron in the chain. The axon of the second neuron is called _______?
CNS; preganglionic fiber/axon; postganglionic fiber/axon
Neurotransmitter that all somatic motor neurons release to activate skeletal muscles?
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitters associated with the ANS?
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and acetylcholine
The two divisions of the ANS? What purpose do they serve (example)?
Sympathetic- accelerates
the heart rate Parasympathetic- slow down heart rate
Postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division are called ______ because they release __________ to regulate visceral effectors?
Adrenergic fibers; norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division are called _______ because they release _______ to regulate visceral effectors?
Cholinergic fibers; acetylcholine
Key words to relate to sympathetic division?
Key words for parasympathetic division?
Sympathetic- fright, flight, and fight
Parasympathetic- resting, relaxing, digesting
Effects of sympathetic division of ANS:
- ______ rate and force of heartbeat
- promotes _____ breathing
- Stimulates _____ glands
- Dilates ______- provides more oxygen to a stressed body
- ______ pupils
- ______ blood pressure (vasoconstriction)
- _______ blood sugar (glucose) levels
- Dilated blood vessels in _____ and _____- increasing blood flow
- ______ blood vessels
- Stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete _____ and ______
- _____ activity of digestive tract
- _____ salivary gland secretion
- Increases
- Rapid
- Sweat glands
- Bronchioles
- Dilates
- Increases
- Increases
- Skeletal muscles and heart
- Constricts
- Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline
- Decreases
- Inhibits
The effects of the sympathetic division tend to be ________ than the effects of the parasympathetic division?
More widespread and more prolonged
Effects of parasympathetic division of ANS:
- _______ (via the ______ nerve) heart rate and force of heartbeat
- ________ (via the _______ nerve) activity of digestive tract including promotion of smooth muscle motility (peristalsis) and digestive gland secretion
- _____ secretion of saliva by salivary glands
- ________ elimination of feces and urine
- ______ breathing rate
- _______ bronchioles
- ______ blood pressure
- _______ (via the _____ nerve) the pupils
- ________ (via the ______ nerve) the ciliary muscle this promoting bulging of the lens for _____ vision
- Effects tend to be ______ than those of the sympathetic division
- Decreases; vagus
- Stimulates; vagus
- Promotes
- Promotes
- Slows
- Constricts
- Lowers
- Stimulates; the oculomotor
- Stimulates; the oculomotor
- More specific/ localized
The ANS two-neuron chain
First neuron is called the __________ neuron whose cell body lies within the spinal cord or brain. It’s axon is called the _____ which synapses with the second neuron ________. The axon of the second neuron is called the _______ which extends to a visceral organ
Preganglionic; preganglionic axon/ fiber; ganglionic neuron; postganglonic axon/ fiber
In the sympathetic division of the ANS, the axons of the preganglionic neurons extend from the thoracic and lumbar parts of the spinal cord so it is said to provide __________?
Thoracolumbar outflow
In the parasympathetic division of the ANS, the axons of the preganglionic neurons extend from the brain and sacral part of the spinal cord so it is said to provide __________?
Craniosacral outflow
Location of ganglia in the sympathetic division?
What are these ganglia called?
Primary located near the spinal cord
Sympathetic trunk ganglia in a sympathetic trunk chain
Location of ganglia in the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
Relatively far from the CNS; in or near visceral organs
Length of pre- and postganglionic fibers:
Sympathetic-
Parasympathetic-
Degree of branching of postganglonic fibers:
Sympathetic-
Parasympathetic-
Rami communicantes:
Sympathetic-
Parasympathetic-
Length:
S-short pre; long post
P- long pre; short post
Branching:
S- extensive branching
P- minimal branching
Rami communicantes:
S-connections between the ventral rami and the sympathetic trunk
P-no rami communicantes
The adrenal medulla
- Is the inner portion of the _______
- It is an important component of the _______ nervous system and ______ system
- Consists of modified sympathetic ganglion neurons called ________ which secrete the hormones ___________ and _________ into the bloodstream during times of physical or emotional stress
- Adrenal gland
- Sympathetic; endocrine
- Chromaffin cells; epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Taste buds are located on the sides of small peg like projections on the tongue called ________?
Papillae
The specific cells that respond to chemicals dissolved in the saliva are called _____?
Gustatory cells
Taste is affected by many factors and what is commonly referred to as our sense of taste depends heavily on stimulation of our _________ by aromas?
Olfactory receptors
The olfactory pathways are closely tied to the brains _______ system which is associated with _______?
Limbic; emotions and memories
________ = eyelids
Palpebrae
In the medial corner of the eye is a small red elevation called ______?
Lacrimal caruncle
glands associated with the hair follicles of eyelashes?
Infection of this gland?
Ciliary glands; sty
Conjuctiva is a very thin transparent membrane that lines the _____ surface of the eyelids as the _______ Conjuctiva and covers the _________of the eyeball as the _________ Conjuctiva? Blood vessels in the conjunctiva are responsible for ________ eyes?
Inner; palpebral; anterior white surface; bulbar/ocular; “bloodshot”
Consists of the lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that drain the lacrimal gland secretions?
Lacrimal apparatus
This duct drains fluid from the lacrimal sac to the nasal cavity?
Nasolacrimal duct
Conjuctivitis/ “pinkeye” =
Inflammation and reddening of the Conjuctiva (bacterial or viral infection)
Extrinsic eye muscles insert onto the ______?
Sclera (white coat of eye)
A misalignment of the eyes in which an improperly controlled eye is turned either medially or laterally relative to the normal eye; results from weakness or paralysis of extrinsic eye muscles or from cranial nerve damage?
Strabismus
The wall of the eyeball is composed of __ layers or tunics which are?
3; fibrous tunic, vascular tunic and neural tunic (retina)
The ____ divides the interior of the eyeball into a small ______ and a larger ________?
The fluid in each cavity?
Lens; anterior cavity; posterior cavity
Anterior cavity - aqueous humor
Posterior cavity - vitreous humor
Fibrous layer of the eyeball contains?
Sclera and cornea
Tough, opaque, white coat of the eyeball?
Sclera
The most anterior part of the eyeball?
Cornea
The cornea can be transplanted from one person to another since it has no ________?
Blood vessels (is avascular)
The _______ includes the presence of (1) actively dividing epithelial cells that continuously renew the corneas epithelium (2) a passage called the _______ which functions as a vein by which _______ is returned to the blood after circulating through the anterior cavity of the eyeball
Corneoscleral junction (where the cornea and sclera meet); scleral venous sinus/ canal of Schlemm; aqueous humor
Vascular layer (middle layer) of eye consists of these three main parts?
Choroid, ciliary body, iris
The posterior portion of the vascular layer of the eye; ______ pigmented; _____ vascular?
Choroid; darkly; very
Choroid blood vessels supply the _______ of the retina with oxygen?
Photoreceptors (rods and cones)
The ciliary body is attached to the edge of the _____ via the _________ – this arrangement allows the ________ to regulate the shape of the lens for focusing light rays?
Lens; suspensory ligament/ciliary zonule; ciliary muscle
The ____ is the pigmented structure that surrounds the rounded opening called the _____ through which light passes?
Iris; pupil
______ cells form the iris, allowing it to _________ and this determine the amount of light that enters the eye?
Smooth muscle; regulate the diameter of the pupil
Is not present in the anterior aspect of the eyeball; consists of two subdivisions?
Retina; the pigmented layer and the neural layer
The pigmented layer of the retina lies against ______. The neural layer of the retina has three specific layers: ?
Choroid;
(external to internal) photoreceptor cells (rods and cones), bipolar cells, ganglion cells
The only spot of the retina that has no photoreceptors?
Optic disc/blind spot
The visual pigment found in rods; derived from a modified vitamin A product?
Rhodopsin
More sensitive to light; allowing us to see in ____ and are associated with peripheral vision?
Rods
This condition is caused by a vitamin A deficiency which leads to problems with rod functioning–hindering our ability to see at night?
Night blindness
These provide for detail, sharp vision and color vision?
Cones
Deficits and dysfunctions of cones are causes of ______?
Color blindness
Cones and rods are ____ evenly distributed in the retina. A small patch in the middle of the posterior retina, the ______ contains mostly cones, and a tiny pit in the center of the macula lutea, the ______ contains only cones.
Not; macula lutea; fovea centralis (point of sharpest vision)
A condition in which a portion of the retina becomes separated from the choroid? (With this detachment, the rods and cones lose there supply of oxygen and nutrients, and begin to die resulting in blindness)
Detached retina
The inner portion of the retina is supplied by the __________ of the retina?
Central artery
With this tool doctors can observe the tiny retinal blood vessels for signs of damage caused by hypertension, arteriosclerosis?
Ophthalmoscope
The posterior cavity of the lens contains a ______ substance called _______?
Gel-like; vitreous humor
The anterior cavity contains a _____ fluid called ______?
Watery; aqueous humor
Aqueous humor is continuously formed by capillaries in the _______ and constantly circulates through the anterior cavity?
Ciliary body
Aqueous humor drains into the _________ which is essentially a vein located in the limbus (junction of the cornea and sclera). If this drainage is blocked, it accumulates in the anterior cavity resulting in intraocular pressure. This condition is called _______? This condition can cause blindness because the pressure build up compresses the retina and optic nerve
Canal of Schlemm (scleral venous sinus); glaucoma
Is a transparent disc located posteriorly to the iris and pupil? Light entering the eyeball focuses on the retina by this?
Lens
The lens is enclosed in a thin _______ and is held in place by the _______ that extends from the ciliary body?
Capsule; suspensory ligament/ ciliary zonule
In youth the lens is transparent and flexible. But as we get older the body becomes less flexible often leading to a type of farsightedness called ______? This results from decreasing elasticity/flexibility of the lens that’s associated with the aging process. Also the lens becomes cloudy as we grow old resulting in ______?
Presbyopia; cataracts
The ability of the lens to focus specifically for close objects is called ________?
Accommodation
Condition that occurs when the light rays from distant objects fail to focus on the retina and instead are focused at a point in front of the retina. Distant objects appear blurry.
Nearsightedness/myopia
When light is not refracted properly due to the cornea and lens not being smoothly curved; results in blurred vision?
Astigmatism
The ear contains receptors for both _____ and _______?
Hearing and balance
The ear has three main regions:
The outer ear, middle ear and inner ear
Hearing is associated with all three regions of the ear but the equilibrium is only associated with the _______?
Inner ear
Outer external ear consists of the ______ and the __________?
Pinna/auricle and the external acoustic meatus
The external acoustic meatus is about 1 inch long is lined with skin that contains ________ glands and_________ glands which secrete _______?
Sebaceous glands and ceruminous glands;earwax/cerumen
The _______ forms the boundary between the outer and middle ears?
Eardrum/ tympanic membrane
A small air filled space within the temporal bone? It’s lateral boundary is the ________ where the medial boundary is _________?
Tympanic membrane; is a wall of bone
Two small holes that penetrate the wall of bone between the inner ear and middle ear?
Oval window and round window
The posterior wall of the middle ear opens into the ______ a canal leading to mastoid air cells in the mastoid process; sometimes infections spread from the middle ear to the mastoid process?
Mastoid antrum
Links the middle ear to the pharynx (throat)?
Pharyngotympanic/auditory/eustachian tube
Usually starts as a throat infection then spreads to the middle ear via the ________ tube; more common in children because the pharyngotympanic tube is shorter and less angular in children than adults making it easier for bacteria to migrate from the trial to the middle ear?
Middle ear infection/ otitis media
Procedure when the eardrum is lanced and a tiny tube is inserted through the eardrum; allows pus to drain from the middle ear to the outer ear which relieves pressure and pain?
Myringotomy
The three smallest bones in the body? Specific names?
Auditory Ossicles; malleus/hammer; anvil/incus; stapes/stirrup
A condition that results from excessive growth of bone tissue in the walls of the middle ear cavity that causes some degree of fusion relative to one or more of the auditory ossicles; hearing loss results
Otosclerosis
The inner ear has two main divisions?
An outer bony labyrinth and an inner membranous labyrinth
The bony labyrinth is filled with fluid called _____?
The membranous labyrinth contains a fluid named ______?
Bony- perilymph
Mem- endolymph
Three main parts of the bony labyrinth?
The semicircular canals
The vestibule
The cochlea
The semicircular canals provide for _____ equilibrium (assoc. with _______ acceleration of the head) , the vestibule provides for ____ equilibrium and the cochlea provides for ______?
Dynamic; rotational/ angular;static; hearing
Main parts of the membranous labyrinth?
Semicircular ducts (in the semicircular canals)
Utricle and saccule (in the vestibule)
Cochlear duct/ Scala media (in the cochlea)
In each the saccule and utricle, there is a receptor complex called the ______ which contains ______ that monitor the head position when still?
Macula; hair cells
The hair of the hair cells of the macula are embedded in a __________ a jelly like disc that contain dense crystals called ____?
Otolithic membrane; otoliths
A semicircular duct =
Ampulla
Each ampulla houses a small crest called a ________ which contain receptor hair cells. The hairs of these hair cells project into an overlying jellylike cap called the ______?
Crista ampullaris; cupula
Because the three semicircular canals lie in three different places, each ________ responds to head movement in a different plane in space?
Crista ampullaris
Most info from the vestibule and semicircular canals is conveyed to the _______ and _______ for processing?
Cerebellum and brain stem
The cochlea is divided into three chambers?
The Scala vestibuli, the Scala tympani, and the cochlear duct/ Scala media
The sensory structure in the cochlear duct that provides for hearing is called _____?
Spiral organ of Corti
A _______ lies beneath and supports the spiral organ of Corti?
A ______ overlies the spiral organ of Corti?
Basilar membrane
Tectorial membrane
The tips of the hairs of the hair cells of the spinal organ of Corti are embedded in the overlying _________?
Tectorial membrane
The endocrine system consists of?
Ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Major processes controlled by hormones?
- Reproduction
- Growth and development
- Dealing with body stress
- Maintaining water, electrolyte, and nutrient balance in the blood
- regulating cellular metabolism
Major endocrine glands?
Pituitary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pineal Thymus Pancreas Gonads
The ________ of the brain is a component of both the nervous system and the endocrine system thus considered a _______ structure?
Hypothalamus; neuroendocrine
The _______ is a mixed gland that is both exocrine and endocrine in nature?
Pancreas
The pancreas is an endocrine gland because it secretes the hormones _____ and _____ into the blood, and it’s an exocrine gland because it releases _____ into a duct that opens into the small intestine?
Insulin and glucagon; digestive enzymes
There are a number of organs than belong to systems other than the endocrine system that possess small clusters of hormone producing cells? These organs include the?
Stomach, small intestine, kidney, and heart
Endocrine glands are primarily composed of glandular ______ tissue?
Epithelial
Endocrine glands are richly supplied with _______?
Blood
Most hormones belong to these two chemical classes? Examples: ?
Protein type hormones and steroid hormones (derived from cholesterol)
Protein hormone = insulin
Steroid hormone = all the sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen) and all hormones made by the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids)
Cells that make and secrete ____ hormones contain an abundance of ribosomes and rough ER. Cells that make and secrete ______ hormones contain a lot of smooth ER and and lipid droplets?
Protein
Steroid
Any given hormone affects only certain cells or organs referred to as its ________?
Target cells/ target organs
The pituitary gland/hypophysis hangs from the inferior surface of the _________ by a small stalk called the _______?
Hypothalamus; infundibulum
Where is the pituitary gland/ hypophysis located?
In the hypophyseal fossa of the Stella turcica of the sphenoid bone
The pituitary gland has a anterior lobe/ _______ and a posterior lobe/ _________
Adenohypophysis; neurohypophysis
The anterior pituitary/ adenohypophysis secretes four ______ hormones named ________? Also secretes growth hormone and _______?
Tropic;
Thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, two gonadotropic hormones, and luteinizing hormone
Prolactin
Posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis is composed of _____ tissue; stores but does not make _________ and ______?
Neural; antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
The adenohypophysis and hypothalamus are connected by a _______ network of veins and capillaries called _______?
Vascular; hypophyseal portal system
The secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary is controlled by hormones that are made and secretes by the ________?
Hypothalamus
The neurohypophysis and hypothalamus are joined by a ______ connection called the ________?
Neural; hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
Two hormones synthesized (made) by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus yet stored in the _______?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin; posterior pituitary
______ and ________ in the hypothalamus make ADH and oxytocin
Supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus
Promotes the growth of long bones at their epiphyseal plates and growth of skeletal muscle; stimulates protein synthesis in many body cells?
Growth hormones
Hypo secretion of growth hormone during childhood leads to _______?
Dawrfism
Hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood results in ______?
Gigantism
A condition that is characterized by significant enlargement of bones in the hands, face and feet; occurs if Hypersecretion of growth hormone occurs in adults; most cases occur due to _____ in the affected gland?
Acromegaly; tumors
Stimulates milk production by the moms mammillary glands?
Prolactin
Prompts the adrenal cortex to release hormones?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Include follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone which both regulate the activity of the _____ and _____?
Gonadotropic hormones; ovaries and testes
Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries until one follicle achieves full maturity as a _______ ?
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); Graafian follicle
Promotes thickening of the uterine lining (endometrium)?
Estrogen and progesterone
Triggers ovulation; the ruptured follicle becomes a _______ which produces progesterone?
Luteinizing hormone (LH); corpus luteum
Oxytocin
Stimulates powerful contractions of smooth muscle in the ________ of the uterus during labor; Used to induce labor; oxytocin promotes milk ______ from a nursing woman’s breast?
Myometrium; ejection
Promotes retention of water by the kidneys; stimulates the kidneys tubules to reabsorb water from urine and move that water into the _________; this reabsorption of water ______ the volume of urine output and ______ blood pressure; drinking alcoholic beverages ______ secretion of this hormone, hangover results?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH); bloodstream; decreases; increases; inhibits
Because diuretics reduce the amount of water in the body they are used to help treat ______ that is associated with congestive heart failure; diuretics are also used to manage ________ because they _____ high blood pressure?
Edema (water retention in the tissues); hypertension (high blood pressure); reduce
Is located in the anterior neck on the surface of the trachea slightly inferior to Adam’s apple of the larynx?
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland has two lateral lobes that are joined by a central bridge of tissue called ____?
Isthmus
Internally the thyroid gland is composed of hollow microscopic spherical structures called ____?
Follicles
The space inside the follicles of the thyroid glands consist of a substance called _____?
Colloid
Iodine is an essential component of this hormone?
Thyroxine/ thyroid hormone
Main function of thyroxine?
Increases the basal metabolic rate (rate at which the body uses nutrients to produce energy cells can directly use)
Thyroxine also effects fat and protein _______?
Metabolism
In children, thyroxine is also important for normal ___________, especially in relation to the ________ systems?
Tissue growth and development; skeletal and nervous
Dawrfism and mental retardation due to the hyposecretion of thyroxine during childhood?
Cretinism
Hyposecretion of thyroxine in adults involves weight gain and _________ ; also would result in mental and ________________ (not mental retardation because the nervous system has already developed)?
Greater sensitivity to cold environments; physical sluggishness
Hypersecretion of thyroxine results in a high metabolic rate, __________, nervousness and rapid heart beat; also leads to __________ of eyeballs
Weight loss; protrusion
Specific type of hyperthyroidism?
Graves’ disease
A lump in the neck caused by an enlarged thyroid gland?
Goiter
Lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland?
Parathyroid glands (2 per thyroid total of 4)
Secreted by the parathyroid glands, this hormone _______ blood calcium levels because it is a ________ hormone?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH); increases; hypercalcemic
Parathyroid hormone increases the level of _______ in the blood?
Calcium ions
Causes massive bone destruction because it promotes over activity of osteoclasts and excessive loss of calcium from the bones?
Hyperparathyroidism
One is located on the top of each kidney?
Adrenal (suprarenal) glands
Each adrenal gland consists of an outer ______ and an inner _________?
Adrenal cortex; adrenal medulla
The adrenal cortex consists of glandular _________ while the adrenal medulla consists of modified neurons of the ____________?
Epithelium; sympathetic division of the ANS
The adrenal cortex reveals three distinct layers?
Zona glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, and Zona reticularis
All of the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are steroids or (_________)?
Corticosteroids
Regulates the levels of mineral electrolytes in the blood– _____ and _______?
Mineralocorticoids; sodium ions and potassium ions
The main mineralocorticoid; promotes the movement (reabsorption) of _____ from the kidney tubules into the blood?
Aldosterone; sodium
Aldosterone _____ the concentration of sodium ions into the body, when sodium is reabsorbed into the blood, water follows it via ______? This, aldosterone increases _______?
Increases; osmosis; blood volume and blood pressure
Include cortisol and hydrocortisone which help the body cope with _______ physical and emotional stress, mainly by elevating blood ______ levels?
Glucocorticoids; long term; glucose
Glucocorticoids are often prescribed as anti inflammatory drugs because they help to ________?
Suppress inflammation, reduce pain, and inhibit the immune system
Results from exposure of the bodies tissues to excessive levels of glucocorticoids; symptoms include the accumulation of fat in the face and upper neck?
Cushing’s syndrome
Small quantities of both male and female sex hormones are secreted by the ______; the bulk of sex hormones are _______ hormones (androgens)?
Adrenal cortex; masculinizing
Consists of modified ganglionic sympathetic neurons called ______?
Chromaffin cells
The chromaffin cells secrete the hormones ______ and ________ into the blood which help the body to deal with ______ stress?
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline); short term
Is located posterior to the stomach in the abdominal cavity?
Pancreas
The pancreas is a _____ gland?
Mixed (endocrine and exocrine)
Clusters of cells called _________ produce pancreatic hormones?
Pancreatic islets/ islets of Langerhans
Beta cells of the pancreatic islets secrete ____?
Alpha cells of the pancreatic islets secrete _____?
Insulin
Glucagon
A pancreatic hormone that raises the blood glucose level by promoting the release of glucose from the liver into the blood; this glucagon has a _________ effect?
Glucagon; hyperglycemic
Reduces blood glucose level; beta cells release insulin; once glucose is inside cells, it can be metabolized as a fuel to make ATP; since insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood its effect is said to be _________?
Insulin; hypoglycemic
Characterized by a deficit of insulin or by the lack of a normal response to insulin?
Diabetes mellitus
Autoimmune disease where a young persons own immune system destroys the persons own beta cells (eliminating the persons natural source of _____)?
Type I diabetes “juvenile diabetes”; insulin
Usually develops in people over 40 and is the far more common diabetes accounting for 90% of all cases?
Type II diabetes “maturity-onset diabetes)
Is located in the dincephalon of the brain?
Pineal gland
The pineal gland secretes _______; this hormone has a big role in the body’s sleep wake cycle/rhythm; increased levels of this hormone in the brain are associated with depression?
Melatonin
This makes the pineal gland easy to ID in X-ray images?
Pineal sand
Is located in the upper thorax posterior to the sternum and superior to the heart; is relatively large in infants and children but _______ throughout adulthood?
Thymus gland; atrophies (decreases in size)
During childhood the thymus gland acts as an incubator for the maturation and programming of _________ which are white blood cells that are important in ______. Thus the thymus gland helps provide for _______ early in life?
T cells/ T lymphocytes; immune response; immunity
Are located in the pelvic cavity and produce estrogen and progesterone?
Ovaries
Are produced and secreted by ovarian follicles; promote the development of _______ characteristics in females such as growth of the breasts and shaping of the hips?
Estrogen; secondary sex
Is produced and secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary; like estrogens, this hormone stimulates the thickening of the _______ in association with the menstrual cycle?
Progesterone; endometrium
Produce male sex hormones (_______) and specifically testosterone?
Testes; Androgens
The specific cell that make testosterone is called ______?
Interstitial cells
Promotes the development and maintenance of the males sex drive and secondary sex characteristics such as growth of facial hair, growth of bones and muscles, and _______?
Testosterone; lowering (deepening) the voice
A temporary endocrine gland in that it’s only present in women during pregnancy?
Placenta
The placenta produces these hormones?
Estrogens, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), and relaxin (relaxin causes the mothers pelvic ligaments to become more flexible)
Cells in the lining of the stomach and small intestine secrete a few hormones which influence ______?
Enteroendocrine cells; digestive processes
Certain cells in the kidney produce a hormone named ________ which targets the red bone marrow where it stimulates the production of _________?
Erythropoietin; erythrocytes (red blood cells)
