Unit 3: Motivation and Emotion

Question 1

John Atkinson

Answer 1

John Atkinson has elaborated extensively on McClelland’s original theory of achievement motivation and has identified some important situational determinants of achievement behavior. Atkinson theorizes that the tendency to pursue achievement in a particular situation depends on the following factors:
=The strength of one’s motivation to achieve success. This is viewed as a stable aspect of personality.
-One’s estimate of the probability of success for the task at hand. This varies from task to task.
=The incentive value of success. This depends on the tangible and intangible rewards for success on the specific task.
The last two variables are situational determinants of achievement behavior. That is, they vary from one situation to another. According to Atkinson, the pursuit of achievement increases as the probability and incentive value of success go up.

Question 2

David Buss

Answer 2

David Buss and 50 scientists from around the world surveyed more than 10 000 people from 37 cultures about what they looked for in a mate. As predicted by parental investment theory, they found that women placed a higher value than men on potential partners’ status, ambition, and financial prospects. These priorities were apparent in third-world cultures, socialist countries, and all varieties of economic systems. In contrast, men around the world consistently showed more interest than women in potential partners’ youthfulness and physical attractiveness.

Question 3

Walter Cannon

Answer 3

Walter Cannon found the James–Lange theory unconvincing. Cannon pointed out that physiological arousal may occur without the experience of emotion (if one exercises vigorously, for instance). He also argued that visceral changes are too slow to precede the conscious experience of emotion. Finally, he argued that people experiencing very different emotions, such as fear, joy, and anger, exhibit almost identical patterns of autonomic arousal.
Thus, Cannon espoused a different explanation of emotion. Later, Philip Bard (1934) elaborated on it. The resulting Cannon–Bard theory argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal). The Cannon–Bard model is compared to the James–Lange model in Figure 10.19. Cannon and Bard were off the mark a bit in pinpointing the thalamus as the neural centre for emotion. However, many modern theorists agree with the Cannon–Bard view that emotions originate in subcortical brain structures and with the assertion that people do not discern their emotions from different patterns of autonomic activation.

Question 4

Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen

Answer 4

In an extensive research project, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen asked subjects to identify what emotion a person was experiencing on the basis of facial cues in photographs. They have found that subjects are generally successful in identifying six fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. People can also identify a number of other emotions from facial expressions, such as contempt, embarrassment, shame, amusement, and sympathy, but less reliably than the basic six emotions. Furthermore, the identification of emotions from facial expressions tends to occur quickly and automatically.

Question 5

William James

Answer 5

William James was a prominent early theorist who urged psychologists to explore the functions of consciousness. James developed a theory of emotion over 100 years ago that remains influential today. At about the same time, he and Carl Lange independently proposed that the conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal. Their theory stood common sense on its head. Everyday logic suggests that when you stumble onto a rattlesnake in the woods, the conscious experience of fear leads to visceral arousal (the fight-or-flight response). The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts the opposite: that the perception of visceral arousal leads to the conscious experience of fear (see Figure 10.19). In other words, while you might assume that your pulse is racing because you’re fearful, James and Lange argued that you’re fearful because your pulse is racing.

Question 6

Joseph LeDoux

Answer 6

According to Joseph LeDoux, sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus, which simultaneously routes the information along two separate pathways: to the nearby amygdala and to areas in the cortex (see Figure 10.16). The amygdala processes the information very quickly. If it detects a threat, it almost instantly triggers activity in the hypothalamus, which leads to autonomic arousal and hormonal responses.
LeDoux believes that this rapid-response pathway evolved because it is a highly adaptive warning system that can “be the difference between life and death.” As LeDoux’s theory would predict, evidence indicates that the amygdala can process emotion independent of cognitive awareness.
Although the amygdala clearly plays a role in fear, some theorists believe that it is merely a key part of a neural network that underlies the experience of fear. According to this view, various emotions depend on activity in neural networks that are broadly distributed across various regions of the brain, rather than that are discrete structures in the brain.

Question 7

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Answer 7

William Masters and Virginia Johnson did groundbreaking research in the 1960s. Their work yielded a detailed description of the human sexual response that eventually won them widespread acclaim. Masters and Johnson (1966, 1970) divided the sexual response cycle into four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Figure 10.5 shows how the intensity of sexual arousal changes as women and men progress through these stages.
During the excitement phase, the level of physical arousal usually escalates rapidly. In both genders, muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, and blood pressure increase quickly. Vasocongestion—engorgement of blood vessels—produces penile erection and swollen testes in males. In females, vasocongestion leads to a swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, and vaginal lubrication. During the plateau phase, physiological arousal usually continues to build, but at a much slower pace. When foreplay is lengthy, arousal tends to fluctuate in both genders.

Question 8

David McClelland

Answer 8

David McClelland and his colleagues (McClelland, 1985; McClelland et al., 1953) have been studying the achievement motive for half a century. McClelland believes that achievement motivation is of the utmost importance. McClelland sees the need for achievement as the spark that ignites economic growth, scientific progress, inspirational leadership, and masterpieces in the creative arts.

Question 9

Robert Plutchik

Answer 9

According to Plutchik, diversity in human emotion is a product of variations in emotional intensity, as well as blendings of primary emotions. Each vertical slice in the diagram is a primary emotion that can be subdivided into emotional expressions of varied intensity, ranging from most intense (top) to least intense (bottom).

Question 10

Stanley Schachter

Answer 10

Stanley Schachter asserted that people look at situational cues to differentiate among alternative emotions. According to Schachter (1964; Schachter & Singer, 1962, 1979), the experience of emotion depends on two factors: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal. Schachter proposed that when you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation
Schachter agreed with the James–Lange view that emotion is inferred from arousal. However, he also agreed with the Cannon–Bard position that different emotions yield indistinguishable patterns of arousal. He reconciled these views by arguing that people look to external rather than internal cues to differentiate and label their specific emotions. In essence, Schachter suggested that people think along the following lines: “If I’m aroused and you’re obnoxious, I must be angry.”

Question 11

affective forecasting

Answer 11

Research on affective forecasting—efforts to predict one’s emotional reactions to future events—demonstrates that people reliably mispredict their future feelings in response to good and bad events, such as getting a promotion at work, taking a long-awaited vacation, getting a poor grade in an important class, or being fired at work. People tend to be reasonably accurate in anticipating whether events will generate positive or negative emotions, but they often are way off in predicting the initial intensity and duration of their emotional reactions.

Question 12

achievement motive

Answer 12

The achievement motive is the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence. Above all else, the need for achievement involves the desire to excel, especially in competition with others.

Question 13

Amygdala

Answer 13

The hypothalamus, amygdala, and adjacent structures in the limbic system have long been viewed as the seat of emotions in the brain
Evidence suggests that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in the acquisition of conditioned fears.. According to Joseph LeDoux, sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus, which simultaneously routes the information along two separate pathways: to the nearby amygdala and to areas in the cortex. The amygdala processes the information very quickly. If it detects a threat, it almost instantly triggers activity in the hypothalamus, which leads to autonomic arousal and hormonal responses.

Question 14

Argument

Answer 14

In everyday usage, the word argument is used to refer to a dispute or disagreement between two or more people, but in the technical language of rhetoric, an argument consists of one or more premises that are used to provide support for a conclusion.

Question 15

Assumptions

Answer 15

Assumptions are premises for which no proof or evidence is offered. Assumptions are often left unstated.

Question 16

Bisexual

Answer 16

Heterosexuals seek emotional–sexual relationships with members of the other sex, bisexuals with members of either sex, and homosexuals with members of the same sex.

Question 17

body mass index (BMI)

Answer 17

Most experts assess obesity in terms of body mass index (BMI)—weight (in kilograms) divided by height (in meters) squared (kg/m2). This index of weight controls for variations in height. A BMI of 25.0–29.9 is typically regarded as overweight, and a BMI over 30 is generally considered obese.

Question 18

brain regulation

Answer 18

Research with lab animals eventually suggested that the experience of hunger is controlled in the brain—specifically, in the hypothalamus. As we have noted before, the hypothalamus is a tiny structure involved in the regulation of a variety of biological needs related to survival.
The current thinking is that the lateral and ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus are elements in the neural circuitry that regulates hunger. However, they are not the key elements, nor simple on–off centres. Today, scientists believe that two other areas of the hypothalamus—the arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus—play a larger role in the modulation of hunger..

Question 19

Drive

Answer 19

A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension.

Question 20

Emotion

Answer 20

Emotion involves (1) a subjective conscious experience (the cognitive component), accompanied by (2) bodily arousal (the physiological component), and (3) characteristic overt expressions (the behavioral component).

Question 21

facial feedback hypothesis

Answer 21

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, inputs to subcortical centres automatically evoke facial expressions associated with certain emotions, and the facial muscles then feed signals to the cortex that help it to recognize the emotion that one is experiencing. According to this view, facial expressions help create the subjective experience of various emotions.

Question 22

galvanic skin response (GSR)

Answer 22

One prominent part of emotional arousal is the galvanic skin response (GSR), an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity. GSR is a convenient and sensitive index of autonomic arousal that has been used as a measure of emotion in many laboratory studies.

Question 23

Ghrelin

Answer 23

After the body goes without food for a while, the stomach secretes ghrelin, which causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger

Question 24

happiness (ingredients)

Answer 24

If you ask any of your friends about what leads to happiness, they will likely provide you with answers such as money, children, good health, or attractiveness. These assertions are all reasonable and widely believed hypotheses about the correlates of happiness, but they have not been supported by empirical research.

Question 25

happiness (predictors)

Answer 25

Bad predictors: money, age, parenthood, attractiveness
Moderate predictors: health, social activity, religion
Strong predictors: relationship satisfaction, work, generics/personality

Question 26

hedonic adaptation

Answer 26

Hedonic adaptation occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness–unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point (or baseline for comparison) changes. Unfortunately, when people’s experiences improve, hedonic adaptation may sometimes put them on a hedonic treadmill—their neutral point moves upward, so that the improvements yield no real benefits.. However, when people have to grapple with major setbacks, hedonic adaptation probably helps protect their mental and physical health.

Question 27

Homeostasis

Answer 27

Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis, a state of physiological equilibrium or stability, to behavior

Question 28

hormonal regulation

Answer 28

A variety of hormones circulating in the bloodstream appear to contribute to the regulation of hunger. For example, after the body goes without food for a while, the stomach secretes ghrelin, which causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger. In contrast, after food is consumed, the upper intestine releases a hormone called CCK that delivers satiety signals to the brain, thus reducing hunger.
evidence indicates that a hormone called leptin contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger, as well as the regulation of numerous other bodily functions. Leptin is produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream. Leptin circulates through the bloodstream and ultimately provides the hypothalamus with information about the body’s fat stores. When leptin levels are high, the propensity to feel hungry diminishes. When leptin levels are low, signals arriving in the brain promote increased hunger. Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, is also sensitive to fluctuations in the body’s fat stores. The hormonal signals that influence hunger (the fluctuations of insulin, ghrelin, CCK, and leptin) all seem to converge in the hypothalamus, especially the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei.

Question 29

Hypothalamus

Answer 29

The hypothalamus, amygdala, and adjacent structures in the limbic system have long been viewed as the seat of emotions in the brain
The hypothalamus is a tiny structure involved in the regulation of a variety of biological needs related to survival

Question 30

Incentive

Answer 30

An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour

Question 31

Leptin

Answer 31

Evidence indicates that a hormone called leptin contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger, as well as the regulation of numerous other bodily functions. Leptin is produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream. Leptin circulates through the bloodstream and ultimately provides the hypothalamus with information about the body’s fat stores. When leptin levels are high, the propensity to feel hungry diminishes. When leptin levels are low, signals arriving in the brain promote increased hunger. Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, is also sensitive to fluctuations in the body’s fat stores. The hormonal signals that influence hunger (the fluctuations of insulin, ghrelin, CCK, and leptin) all seem to converge in the hypothalamus, especially the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei

Question 32

Motivation

Answer 32

Motivation relates to the study of the processes involved in goal-directed behavior.

Question 33

Orgasm

Answer 33

Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, but women are more likely than men to experience more than one orgasm in a brief time period. That said, women are also more likely than men to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm

Question 34

Polygraph

Answer 34

The connection between emotion and autonomic arousal provides the basis for the polygraph, or lie detector, a device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned. Scientific research into physiological markers of deception has a long history. The polygraph was invented in 1915 by psychologist William Marston—who also dreamed up the comic book superhero Wonder Woman. A polygraph can’t actually detect lies. It’s really an emotion detector. It monitors key indicators of autonomic arousal, typically heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and GSR. The assumption is that when subjects lie, they experience emotion (presumably anxiety) that produces noticeable changes in these physiological indicators.

Question 35

Premises

Answer 35

Premises are the reasons that are presented to persuade someone that a conclusion is true or probably true

Question 36

set-point theory

Answer 36

Set-point theory proposes that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. This set point is each individual’s natural point of stability for weight. Originally viewed as a specific point of balance, it is now viewed as a narrow range of weight around that point

Question 37

sexual orientation

Answer 37

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex.

Question 38

Vasocongestion

Answer 38

Vasocongestion—engorgement of blood vessels—produces penile erection and swollen testes in males. In females, vasocongestion leads to a swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, and vaginal lubrication

Question 39

subjective well-being

Answer 39

Recent years have brought a surge of interest in the correlates of subjective well-being—individuals’ personal perceptions of their overall happiness and life satisfaction

Question 40

Define motivation. Compare drive, incentive, and evolutionary approaches to understanding motivation.

Answer 40

Motivation - Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people in certain directions, propel us to achieve important goals. In short, motivation involves goal-directed behavior. As we will see later in this book, motivation to achieve relevant goals can be an important determinant of adjustment.
Drive - Many theories view motivational forces in terms of drives. The drive concept appears in a diverse array of theories that otherwise have little in common, such as psychoanalytic and behaviorist formulations.This approach to understanding motivation was explored most fully by Clark Hull in the 1940s and 1950s. Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis, a state of physiological equilibrium or stability, to behavior. A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension. These unpleasant states of tension are viewed as disruptions of the preferred equilibrium
Incentive - Incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states. An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior. Ice cream, a juicy steak, a monetary prize, approval from friends, an A on an exam, and a promotion at work are all incentives. Some of these incentives may reduce drives, but others may not. Drive and incentive models of motivation are often contrasted as push-versus-pull theories. Drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions. Incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions. According to drive theories, the source of motivation lies within the organism. According to incentive theories, the source of motivation lies outside the organism.
Evolutionary approaches to understanding motivation - Psychologists who take an evolutionary perspective assert that human motives and those of other species are the products of evolution, just as anatomical characteristics are. They argue that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success—that is, passing on genes to the next generation. Thus, they explain motives such as affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of their adaptive value. If dominance is a crucial motive for a species, they say, it’s because dominance provides a reproductive or survival advantage. Evolutionary analyses of motivation are based on the premise that motives can best be understood in terms of the adaptive problems they solved for our hunter–gatherer ancestors. For example, the need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than women because it could facilitate males’ reproductive success in a variety of ways, including (1) females may prefer mating with dominant males, (2) dominant males may poach females from subordinate males, (3) dominant males may intimidate male rivals in competition for sexual access, and (4) dominant males may acquire more material resources, which may increase mating opportunities (Buss, 2014).Consider, also, the affiliation motive, or need for belongingness. The adaptive benefits of affiliation for our ancestors probably included help with offspring, collaboration in hunting and gathering, mutual defense, opportunities for sexual interaction, and so forth. Hence, humans developed a strong need to belong and a strong aversion to rejection. David Buss points out that it is not by accident that achievement, power (dominance), and intimacy are among the most heavily studied motives because the satisfaction of each of these motives is likely to affect one’s reproductive success. Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point: Humans display an enormous diversity of motives. These include a host of biological motives, such as hunger, thirst, and sex, and a variety of social motives, such as the needs for achievement, affiliation, autonomy, dominance, and order. Given the range and diversity of human motives, we can only examine a handful in depth. To a large degree, our choices reflect the motives psychologists have studied the most: hunger, sex, and achievement. After our discussion of these motivational systems, we will explore the elements of emotional experience and discuss various theories of emotion.

Question 41

Distinguish between biological and social motives. Provide examples of motives in each category.

Answer 41

Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point: Humans display an enormous diversity of motives. These include a host of biological motives, such as hunger, thirst, and sex, and a variety of social motives, such as the needs for achievement, affiliation, autonomy, dominance, and order.

Question 42

Summarize the evidence regarding the role of biological factors in the regulation of hunger.

Answer 42

Brain Regulation - Research with lab animals eventually suggested that the experience of hunger is controlled in the brain—specifically, in the hypothalamus. As we have noted before, the hypothalamus is a tiny structure involved in the regulation of a variety of biological needs related to survival
Digestive and Hormonal Regulation - The digestive system includes a variety of mechanisms that influence hunger. It turns out that Walter Cannon was not entirely wrong in hypothesizing that the stomach regulates hunger. After you have consumed food, the stomach can send a variety of signals to the brain that inhibit further eating. For instance, the vagus nerve carries information about the stretching of the stomach walls that indicates when the stomach is full. Other nerves carry satiety messages that depend on how rich in nutrients the contents of the stomach are. A variety of hormones circulating in the bloodstream appear to contribute to the regulation of hunger. For example, after the body goes without food for a while, the stomach secretes ghrelin, which causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger. In contrast, after food is consumed, the upper intestine releases a hormone called CCK that delivers satiety signals to the brain, thus reducing hunger. Finally, evidence indicates that a hormone called leptin contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger, as well as the regulation of numerous other bodily functions. Leptin is produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream. Leptin circulates through the bloodstream and ultimately provides the hypothalamus with information about the body’s fat stores (Dietrich & Horvath, 2012). When leptin levels are high, the propensity to feel hungry diminishes. When leptin levels are low, signals arriving in the brain promote increased hunger. Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, is also sensitive to fluctuations in the body’s fat stores. The hormonal signals that influence hunger (the fluctuations of insulin, ghrelin, CCK, and leptin) all seem to converge in the hypothalamus, especially the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei.

Question 43

Summarize the evidence regarding the role of environmental factors in the regulation of hunger.

Answer 43

Hunger clearly is a biological need, but eating is not regulated by biological factors alone. Studies show that social and environmental factors govern eating to a considerable extent. Three key environmental factors are (1) the availability of food, (2) learned preferences and habits, and (3) stress.
Palatability - The better food tastes, the more of it people consume. This principle is not limited to humans. The eating behavior of rats and other animals is also influenced by palatability.
Quantity available - A powerful determinant of the amount eaten is the amount available. People tend to consume what’s put in front of them. The more people are served, the more they eat. This is often referred to as the bin model or bin heuristic. Individuals may focus on one unit of food as the appropriate amount rather than the quantity of food. Unfortunately, in recent decades, the size of grocery store packages, restaurant portions, and dinnerware has increased steadily. These bloated cues about what represents “normal” food consumption clearly fuel increased eating. Thus, the remarkably large and ever-expanding portions served in modern North American restaurants surely foster increased consumption
Variety. Humans and animals increase their consumption when a greater variety of foods is available. As you eat a specific food, its incentive value declines. This phenomenon is called sensory-specific satiety. If only a few foods are available, the appeal of all of them can decline quickly. But if many foods are available, people can keep shifting to new foods and end up eating more overall. This principle explains why people are especially likely to overeat at buffets where many foods are available.
Presence of others - On average, individuals eat 44 percent more when they eat with other people as opposed to eating alone. The more people present, the more people tend to eat. When two people eat together, they tend to use each other as guides and eat similar amounts. However, when women eat in the presence of an opposite-sex person they do not know well, they tend to reduce their intake. When asked afterward, people seem oblivious to the fact that their eating is influenced by the presence of others.
Stress - Stress has varied effects on eating, as some individuals eat less, but estimates suggest that roughly 40–50 percent of people increase their food consumption in times of stress. In many people, stress also appears to foster a shift toward less healthy food choices, such as loading up on sweets and fatty foods.
Learned preferences and habits - Humans do have some innate taste preferences of a general sort. For example, a preference for sweet tastes is present at birth, and humans’ preference for high-fat foods appears to be at least partly genetic in origin. Evidence also suggests that an unlearned preference for salt emerges at around four months of age in humans. Nonetheless, learning wields a great deal of influence over what people prefer to eat. Taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations formed through classical conditioning. For example, youngsters can be conditioned to prefer flavors paired with high caloric intake or other pleasant events. Of course, as we learned in Chapter 6, taste aversions can also be acquired through conditioning when foods are followed by nausea.. To a large degree, food preferences are a matter of exposure. People generally prefer familiar foods. But geographical, cultural, religious, and ethnic factors limit people’s exposure to certain foods. Young children are more likely to taste an unfamiliar food if an adult tries it first. Repeated exposures to a new food usually lead to increased liking. However, as many parents have learned the hard way, forcing a child to eat a specific food can backfire.

Question 44

Define obesity. Describe the factors identified in Weiten and McCann (2019) as causing obesity.

Answer 44

Obesity, the condition of being overweight. Most experts assess obesity in terms of body mass index (BMI)—weight (in kilograms) divided by height (in metres) squared (kg/m2). This index of weight controls for variations in height. A BMI of 25.0–29.9 is typically regarded as overweight, and a BMI over 30 is generally considered obese.
Genetic predisposition
Excessive Eating and Inadequate Exercise
The Concept of Set Point
Dietary Restraint

Question 45

Describe the four psychological phases of the human sexual response.

Answer 45

Masters and Johnson (1966, 1970) divided the sexual response cycle into four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
During the excitement phase, the level of physical arousal usually escalates rapidly. In both genders, muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, and blood pressure increase quickly. Vasocongestion—engorgement of blood vessels—produces penile erection and swollen testes in males. In females, vasocongestion leads to a swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, and vaginal lubrication.
During the plateau phase, physiological arousal usually continues to build, but at a much slower pace. When foreplay is lengthy, arousal tends to fluctuate in both genders.
Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, but women are more likely than men to experience more than one orgasm in a brief time period. That said, women are also more likely than men to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm. When respondents are asked whether they always have an orgasm with their partner, the gender gap in orgasmic consistency looks quite large.
During the resolution phase, the physiological changes produced by sexual arousal gradually subside. If orgasm has not occurred, the reduction in sexual tension may be relatively slow. After orgasm, men experience a refractory period, a time following orgasm during which they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. The length of the refractory period varies from a few minutes to a few hours, and increases with age.

Question 46

Summarize the evolutionary perspective of human sexual behavior. Include a description of the parental investment theory.

Answer 46

The task of explaining sexual behavior is crucial to the evolutionary perspective, given its fundamental thesis that natural selection is fuelled by variations in reproductive success. The thinking in this area has been guided by Robert Trivers’s parental investment theory, which maintains that a species’ mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest—in terms of time, energy, and survival risk—to produce and nurture offspring. According to Trivers, the sex that makes the smaller investment will compete for mating opportunities with the sex that makes the larger investment, and the sex with the larger investment will tend to be more discriminating in selecting its partners. Let’s look at how this analysis applies to humans.
Like many mammalian species, human males are required to invest little in the production of offspring beyond the act of copulation, so their reproductive potential is maximized by mating with as many females as possible. The situation for females is quite different. Females have to invest nine months in pregnancy, and our female ancestors typically had to devote at least several additional years to nourishing offspring through breastfeeding. These realities place a ceiling on the number of offspring women can produce, regardless of how many males they mate with. Hence, females have little or no incentive for mating with many males. Instead, females can optimize their reproductive potential by being selective in mating. Thus, in humans, males are thought to compete with other males for the relatively scarce and valuable “commodity” of reproductive opportunities.
Parental investment theory predicts that in comparison to women, men will show more interest in sexual activity, more desire for variety in sexual partners, and more willingness to engage in uncommitted sex. In contrast, females are thought to be the conservative, discriminating sex that is highly selective in choosing partners. This selectivity supposedly entails seeking partners who have the greatest ability to contribute toward feeding and caring for offspring. Why? Because in the world of our ancient ancestors, males’ greater strength and agility would have been crucial assets in the never-ending struggle to find food and shelter and defend one’s territory. A female who chose a mate who was lazy or unreliable or who had no hunting, fighting, building, farming, or other useful economic skills would have suffered a substantial disadvantage in her efforts to raise her children and pass on her genes.

Question 47

Describe the research by Buss demonstrating gender differences in mating preferences (differences that largely transcend cultural boundaries).

Answer 47

David Buss and 50 scientists from around the world surveyed more than 10 000 people from 37 cultures about what they looked for in a mate. As predicted by parental investment theory, they found that women placed a higher value than men on potential partners’ status, ambition, and financial prospects. These priorities were apparent in third-world cultures, socialist countries, and all varieties of economic systems. In contrast, men around the world consistently showed more interest than women in potential partners’ youthfulness and physical attractiveness. A number of studies, using diverse samples and a variety of research methods, have replicated these findings

Question 48

Discuss the factors that influence sexual desire and sexual orientation.

Answer 48

Genetics and sexual orientation - If relatives who share more genetic relatedness show greater similarity on a trait than relatives who share less genetic overlap, this evidence suggests a genetic predisposition to the characteristic. Studies of both gay men and lesbians have found a higher prevalence of homosexuality among their identical twins than among their fraternal twins, who, in turn, are more likely to be homosexual than their adoptive siblings. These findings suggest that genetic factors influence sexual orientation
Prenatal - Many theorists suspect that the roots of homosexuality may lie in the organizing effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development. Several lines of research suggest that hormonal secretions during critical periods of prenatal development may shape sexual development, organize the brain in a lasting manner, and influence subsequent sexual orientation

Question 49

Summarize the evidence regarding the determinants of sexual orientation.

Answer 49

Biological Theories - Over the years, many environmental theories have been floated to explain the origins of homosexuality, but when tested empirically, these theories have garnered remarkably little support. However, that picture changed in the 1990s when a pair of behavioral genetics studies reported findings suggesting that homosexuality has a hereditary basis. In the first study, conducted by Bailey and Pillard, the subjects were gay men who had either a twin brother or an adopted brother. They found that 52 percent of the subjects’ identical twins were gay, that 22 percent of their fraternal twins were gay, and that 11 percent of their adoptive brothers were gay. A companion study of lesbians yielded a similar pattern of results. Given that identical twins share more genetic overlap than fraternal twins, who share more genes than unrelated adoptive siblings, these results suggest that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality. The heritability of sexual orientation appears to be similar in men and women. Research also suggests that epigenetic processes that dampen or silence specific genes’ effects may influence sexual orientation.
Environmental Theories - Over the years, many environmental theories have been floated to explain the origins of homosexuality, but when tested empirically, these theories have garnered remarkably little support.

Question 50

Explain how individual differences in the need for achievement influence achievement behavior.

Answer 50

The need for achievement is a fairly stable aspect of personality. Hence, research in this area has focused mostly on individual differences in achievement motivation. Subjects’ need for achievement and need for affiliation can be measured effectively with the Thematic Apperception Test. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test, one that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal personal motives and traits.
The research on individual differences in achievement motivation has yielded interesting findings on the characteristics of people who score high in the need for achievement. They tend to work harder and more persistently on tasks than people low in the need for achievement and they handle negative feedback about task performance more effectively than others. They also are more future-oriented than others and more likely to delay gratification in order to pursue long-term goals..

Question 51

Explain how situational factors and fear of failure affect achievement strivings.

Answer 51

Your achievement drive is not the only determinant of how hard you work. Situational factors can also influence achievement strivings. John Atkinson has elaborated extensively on McClelland’s original theory of achievement motivation and has identified some important situational determinants of achievement behavior. Atkinson theorizes that the tendency to pursue achievement in a particular situation depends on the following factors:
The strength of one’s motivation to achieve success. This is viewed as a stable aspect of personality.
One’s estimate of the probability of success for the task at hand. This varies from task to task.
The incentive value of success. This depends on the tangible and intangible rewards for success on the specific task.
According to Atkinson, a person’s fear of failure must also be considered to understand achievement behavior. He maintains that people vary in their motivation to avoid failure. This motive is considered to be a stable aspect of personality. Together with situational factors such as the probability of failure and the negative value placed on failure, it influences achievement strivings. Figure 10.13 diagrams all of the factors in Atkinson’s model that are thought to govern achievement behavior.

Question 52

Describe the cognitive component of emotion.

Answer 52

Emotions are pervasive in the human experience. It seems as if we constantly think about them by ourselves and discuss them with others. It should come as no surprise then that our language and words are filled with emotion. Hundreds of words in the English language refer to emotions. Analytical systems have been developed to provide normative emotional ratings for the words we use. These systems allow researchers to examine a wide variety of features of human behavior and experience. Ironically, however, even given all this emotional content in our words, people often have difficulty describing their emotions to others. Emotion is a highly personal, subjective experience. In studying the cognitive component of emotions, psychologists generally rely on subjects’ verbal reports of what they’re experiencing. Their reports indicate that emotions are potentially intense internal feelings that sometimes seem to have a life of their own. People can’t click their emotions on and off like a bedroom light. If it were as simple as that, you could choose to be happy whenever you wanted. Actually, some degree of emotional control is possible, but emotions tend to involve automatic reactions that are difficult to regulate. In some cases, these emotional reactions may occur at an unconscious level of processing, outside of one’s awareness. We are not very good at anticipating our emotional responses to future setbacks and triumphs. Research on affective forecasting—efforts to predict one’s emotional reactions to future events—demonstrates that people reliably mispredict their future feelings in response to good and bad events, such as getting a promotion at work, taking a long-awaited vacation, getting a poor grade in an important class, or being fired at work. People tend to be reasonably accurate in anticipating whether events will generate positive or negative emotions, but they often are way off in predicting the initial intensity and duration of their emotional reactions.

Question 53

Describe the physiological component of emotion.

Answer 53

Emotional processes are closely tied to physiological processes, but the interconnections are enormously complex. The biological bases of emotions are diffuse, involving many areas in the brain and many neurotransmitter systems, as well as the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. Much of the discernible physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles, and blood vessels.The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional fight-or-flight response, which is largely modulated by the release of adrenal hormones that radiate throughout the body. Hormonal changes clearly play a crucial role in emotional responses to stress and may contribute to many other emotions as well.
One prominent part of emotional arousal is the galvanic skin response (GSR), an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity. GSR is a convenient and sensitive index of autonomic arousal that has been used as a measure of emotion in many laboratory studies.
Evidence suggests that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in the acquisition of conditioned fears. Sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus, which simultaneously routes the information along two separate pathways: to the nearby amygdala and to areas in the cortex (see Figure 10.16). The amygdala processes the information very quickly. If it detects a threat, it almost instantly triggers activity in the hypothalamus, which leads to autonomic arousal and hormonal responses.

Question 54

Describe the behavioral component of emotion.

Answer 54

At the behavioral level, people reveal their emotions through characteristic overt expressions such as smiles, frowns, furrowed brows, clenched fists, and slumped shoulders. In other words, emotions are expressed in “body language,” or nonverbal behavior.

Question 55

Explain the facial feedback hypothesis.

Answer 55

The facial-feedback hypothesis. According to the facial feedback hypothesis, inputs to subcortical centers automatically evoke facial expressions associated with certain emotions, and the facial muscles then feed signals to the cortex that help it to recognize the emotion that one is experiencing. According to this view, facial expressions help create the subjective experience of various emotions.

Question 56

Summarize cross-cultural similarities and variations in emotional experience.

Answer 56

Cross-Cultural Similarities in Emotional Experience - Ekman and Friesen found considerable cross-cultural agreement in the identification of happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust based on facial expressions, leading to the conclusion that the facial expressions associated with basic emotions are universally recognized across cultures. Likewise, researchers have found little cultural variance in the physiological arousal that accompanies emotional experience. All that said, some theorists have questioned the assertion that facial expressions of emotion transcend culture. Nelson and Russell point out that there are some substantial variations across cultures in subjects’ accuracy in identifying specific emotions.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Emotional Experience - The cross-cultural similarities in emotional experience are impressive, but researchers have also found many cultural disparities in how people think about, experience, regulate, and express their emotions. For example, Japanese culture encourages the experience of socially engaging emotions (e.g., friendly feelings, sympathy, and guilt) more than North American culture, and Japanese participants report experiencing these types of emotion more. In contrast, North American culture encourages socially disengaging emotions (e.g., pride and anger) more than Japanese culture, and North American subjects report experiencing these kinds of emotion more. Fascinating variations have been observed in how cultures categorize emotions. Some basic categories of emotion that are universally understood in Western cultures appear to go unrecognized—or at least unnamed—in some non-Western cultures. For example, some cultures have no word that corresponds to sadness. Others lack words for depression, anxiety, or remorse.Cultural disparities have also been found in regard to nonverbal expressions of emotion. Display rules are norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions. They prescribe when, how, and to whom people can show various emotions. These norms vary from one culture to another. The Ifaluk of Micronesia, for instance, severely restrict expressions of happiness because they believe that this emotion often leads people to neglect their duties. Japanese culture emphasizes the suppression of negative emotions in public. More so than in many other cultures, the Japanese are socialized to mask emotions such as anger, sadness, and disgust with stoic facial expressions or polite smiling. Thus, nonverbal expressions of emotions vary somewhat across cultures.

Question 57

Compare and contrast the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion. Explain how Schachter reconciled these conflicting views in his two-factor theory.

Answer 57

James-Lange - William James and Carl Lange independently proposed that the conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal. Their theory stood common sense on its head. Everyday logic suggests that when you stumble onto a rattlesnake in the woods, the conscious experience of fear leads to visceral arousal (the fight-or-flight response). The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts the opposite: that the perception of visceral arousal leads to the conscious experience of fear.The James–Lange theory emphasizes the physiological determinants of emotion. According to this view, different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions. Hence, people supposedly distinguish emotions such as fear, joy, and anger on the basis of the exact configuration of physical reactions they experience.
Cannon-Bard - Walter Cannon found the James–Lange theory unconvincing. Cannon pointed out that physiological arousal may occur without the experience of emotion (if one exercises vigorously, for instance). He also argued that visceral changes are too slow to precede the conscious experience of emotion. Finally, he argued that people experiencing very different emotions, such as fear, joy, and anger, exhibit almost identical patterns of autonomic arousal.Thus, Cannon espoused a different explanation of emotion. Later, Philip Bard (1934) elaborated on it. The resulting Cannon–Bard theory argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal). The Cannon–Bard model is compared to the James–Lange model in. Cannon and Bard were off the mark a bit in pinpointing the thalamus as the neural center for emotion. However, many modern theorists agree with the Cannon–Bard view that emotions originate in subcortical brain structures and with the assertion that people do not discern their emotions from different patterns of autonomic activation.
Schachter - In another influential analysis, Stanley Schachter asserted that people look at situational cues to differentiate among alternative emotions. According to Schachter, the experience of emotion depends on two factors: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal. Schachter proposed that when you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation. If you’re stuck in a traffic jam, you’ll probably label your arousal as anger. If you’re taking an important exam, you’ll probably label it as anxiety. If you’re celebrating your birthday, you’ll probably label it as happiness.Dutton and Aron arranged for young men crossing a footbridge in a park to encounter a young woman who asked them to stop briefly to fill out a questionnaire. The woman offered to explain the research at some future time and gave the men her phone number. Autonomic arousal was manipulated by enacting this scenario on two very different bridges. One was a long suspension bridge that swayed precariously 70 metres above a river. The other bridge was a solid, safe structure above a small stream. The experimenters reasoned that the men crossing the frightening bridge would be experiencing emotional arousal and that some of them might attribute that arousal to the woman rather than to the bridge. If so, they might mislabel their emotion as lust rather than fear and infer that they were attracted to the woman. The dependent variable was how many of the men later called the woman to pursue a date. As predicted, more of the men who met the woman on the precarious bridge called her for a date. Thus, the findings supported the theory that people often infer emotion from their physiological arousal and label that emotion in accordance with their cognitive explanation for it.

Question 58

Describe evolutionary theories of emotion.

Answer 58

Evolutionary theories consider emotions to be largely innate reactions to certain stimuli. As such, emotions should be immediately recognizable under most conditions without much thought.

Question 59

The material presented in Chapter 10 is loaded with controversial material that well-meaning people could argue about for weeks. Describe the five fallacies that commonly show up in arguments about controversial issues such as the ones presented in this chapter.

Answer 59

Irrelevant Reasons - Reasons cannot provide support for an argument unless they are relevant to the conclusion.
Circular Reasoning - In circular reasoning the premise and conclusion are simply restatements of each other. People vary their wording a little so it isn’t obvious, but when you look closely, the conclusion is the premise.
Slippery Slope - The concept of slippery slope argumentation takes its name from the notion that if you are on a slippery slope and you don’t dig in your heels, you will slide and slide until you reach the bottom. A slippery slope argument typically asserts that if you allow X to happen, things will spin out of control and far worse events will follow. The trick is that there is no inherent connection between X and the events that are predicted to follow.
Weak Analogies - An analogy asserts that two concepts or events are similar in some way. Hence, you can draw conclusions about event B because of its similarity to event A. Analogies are useful in thinking about complex issues, but some analogies are weak or inappropriate because the similarity between A and B is superficial, minimal, or irrelevant to the issue at hand.
False Dichotomy - A false dichotomy creates an either–or choice between two outcomes: the outcome advocated and some obviously horrible outcome that any sensible person would want to avoid. These outcomes are presented as the only two possibilities, when in reality there could be other outcomes, including ones that lie somewhere between the extremes depicted in the false dichotomy.