Unit 1: The Evolution of Psychology

Question 1

Seven Themes in Psychology

Answer 1

Theme 1: Psychology is empirical - Knowledge is acquired through systematic observation rather than intuition, common sense, or speculation.
Theme 2: Psychology is theoretically diverse - There are often no black and white solutions to questions about psychology. One in several thousand explanations can be correct.
Theme 3: Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context - Theories have evolved over time. No single theory can easily explain everything that is known about behavior.
Theme 4: Behavior is determined by multiple causes - Complex behaviors are typically a function of multiple causation.
Theme 5: Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage - Until recently, psychology has been the science that studies Caucasian male behavior.Much of the early experimental psychological research was based on the findings derived from a restricted population: undergraduate students who were usually male.
Theme 6: Heredity and environment jointly influence behavior - Now it is recognized that all behaviors are a function of both environmental and genetic factors.
Theme 7: People’s experience of the world is highly subjective - Only when one appreciates the need to overcome subjectivity can one really understand psychological research approaches

Question 2

William Wundt (1832 - 1920)

Answer 2

Founder of psychology
Mounted a campaign to make psychology an independent discipline rather than a stepchild of philosophy and physiology
Set up the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879
Proposed a scientific approach to the discipline
Established the first psychology journal

Question 3

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)

Answer 3

Austrian physician
theories made him one of the most influential—and controversial—intellectual figures of the 20th century
approach to psychology grew out of his efforts to treat mental disorders
treated people troubled by psychological problems such as irrational fears, obsessions, and anxieties with an innovative procedure he called psychoanalysis.

Question 4

G. Stanley Hall (1846 -1924)

Answer 4

Called the father of developmental psychology
Pioneer in the study of child and adolescent development
Pivotal role in the establishment of the APA
Proposed the recapitulation theory: the development of an individual mirrors the evolutionary development of the human species

Question 5

Donald Hebb (1904 - 1985)

Answer 5

Early research showed that it was possible to map out the parts of the brain associated with speech, memory, and sensory and motor activities
was a professor of psychology at McGill University in Montreal
credited with highlighting the importance of physiological and neuropsychological perspectives and as having paved the way for the recent cognitive and neuroscience revolutions in psychology
emphasis on the importance of the brain in behavior provided an important counterweight to that time’s dominance of the behaviorist models.
argued that the locus of behavior should be sought in the brain.
introduced cell assembly; repeated stimulation leads to the development of cell assemblies. Cell assemblies resemble cognitive units that together or in concert with other cell assemblies facilitate behavior.
suggested how neural networks might work and be organized
proposed that the key to understanding this was activity at the neuronal level.
set the stage for contemporary developments in cognition and neuroscience and underscored the importance of the neuropsychological approach to understanding behavior

Question 6

William James (1842 - 1910)

Answer 6

American author.
influenced functionalism
Came up with a theory of emotion.

Question 7

Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987)

Answer 7

Human behavior is governed primarily by each individual’s sense of self, or “self-concept”—which animals presumably lack
Psychologists must take into account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth.
People have a basic need to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potential
Pioneered person-centered therapy.

Question 8

Martin Seligman (1942)

Answer 8

President of the APA in 1997
Launched positive psychology movement
argued that the field of psychology had historically devoted too much attention to pathology, weakness, and damage, and ways to heal suffering
acknowledged that this approach had yielded valuable insights and progress but that it also resulted in an unfortunate neglect of the forces that make life worth living.

Question 9

B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Answer 9

Did not deny the existence of internal mental events but they can not be studied scientifically.
If the stimulus of food is followed by the response of eating, we can fully describe what is happening without making any guesses about whether the animal is experiencing hunger. emphasized how environmental factors mold behavior.
Able to train animals to perform unnatural behaviors.
Principles uncovered in animal research could be applied to complex human behaviors as well.
All behavior is fully governed by external stimuli.
Your behavior is determined in predictable ways by lawful principles
If you believe that your actions are the result of conscious decisions, you’re wrong.
We are all controlled by our environment, not by ourselves.
Free will is an illusion.

Question 10

John B. Watson (1878 - 1958)

Answer 10

Founded the school of behaviorism.
Rejected the study of consciousness and introspection
Shifted the focus to observable behavior

Question 11

Structuralism

Answer 11

Emerged through the leadership of Edward Titchener.
Task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related.
identify the fundamental components of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings, and images. Most of their work concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and touch.
Psychology should be concerned with the systematic study of immediate conscious experience through introspection, where trained observers would report their thoughts, sensations, and feelings in response to stimuli.

Question 12

Functionalism

Answer 12

Heavily influenced by William James
Based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure
James argued that the structuralists’ approach missed the real nature of conscious experience.
Consciousness, he argued, consists of a continuous flow of thoughts. In analyzing consciousness into its “elements,” the structuralists were looking at static points in that flow. James wanted to understand the flow itself, which he called the stream of consciousness.
Whereas structuralists naturally gravitated to the lab, the functionalists were more interested in how people adapt their behavior to the demands of the real world around them.
Instead of focusing on sensation and perception, the functionalists began to investigate mental testing, patterns of development in children, the effectiveness of educational practices, and behavioral differences between the sexes. These new topics may have played a role in attracting the first women into the field of psychology, some of whom played critical roles in the developing science of psychology

Question 13

Clinical Psychology

Answer 13

Assess and diagnose various mental health conditions
Use interviews and standardized tests to gather information about symptoms and experiences
Earn a doctoral degree
Not doctors

Question 14

Educational Psychology

Answer 14

Address educational issues
Improve teaching and learning processes
Work in schools, colleges, universities, and educational research institutions
Study development of learners across their lifespan

Question 15

Industrial Psychology

Answer 15

Study various aspects of the workplace, including employee behavior, motivation, productivity, leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational structure
Address ethical and legal concerns like employee rights, discrimination, harassment, and compliance with employee laws and regulations
Promote diversity and inclusion

Question 16

Applied psychology

Answer 16

Practical application of psychological principles and theories to address real world problems and improve the lives of individuals, groups, and society as a whole

Question 17

Behavior

Answer 17

Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
Watson asserted that psychologists could study anything that people do or say—shopping, playing chess, eating, complimenting a friend—but they could not scientifically study the thoughts, wishes, and feelings that might accompany these observable behaviors

Question 18

Behaviorism

Answer 18

Founded by John B. Watson (1878–1958)
behaviorism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
Psychologists should abandon the study of consciousness altogether and focus exclusively on behaviors that they could observe directly

Question 19

Biological Psychology

Answer 19

a subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. It explores how biological processes and structures influence our thoughts, emotions, and actions.
Key areas of interest include: neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, neurophysiology, genetics, neuroimaging, psychopharmacology

Question 20

Cognition

Answer 20

refers to the mental processes and activities related to acquiring, processing, storing, and using information
encompasses a wide range of mental activities that occur in the mind, allowing individuals to perceive, understand, reason, learn, remember, problem-solve, and make decisions

Question 21

Counseling Psychology

Answer 21

subfield of psychology that focuses on helping individuals of all ages deal with emotional, social, vocational, educational, and health-related issues
Counselors, who are trained professionals in this field, work to improve their clients’ overall well-being and help them develop strategies to address specific concerns or challenges.

Question 22

Critical Thinking

Answer 22

cognitive process and a set of skills that involves actively and objectively analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information and ideas to make informed decisions, solve problems, and form well-justified beliefs or conclusions
disciplined way of thinking that goes beyond accepting information at face value and instead seeks to assess and understand it more deeply
Involves questioning, evidence-based analysis, logical reasoning, problem-solving, reflection, communication, decision-making

Question 23

Culture

Answer 23

refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, behaviors, symbols, and practices that characterize a group of people, society, or community.

Question 24

Developmental Psychologist

Answer 24

specializes in studying and understanding the psychological growth and development of individuals across the lifespan.
focus on how people change and develop physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially from infancy through old age
research and practice encompass a wide range of topics related to human development, and they may work in various settings, including research institutions, educational institutions, clinical settings, and government agencies.

Question 25

Empiricism

Answer 25

a philosophical and epistemological approach that asserts that knowledge is primarily or exclusively derived from sensory experience and empirical evidence
emphasizes the importance of observation, perception, and direct sensory experience as the foundation for understanding the world and gaining knowledge about it
stands in contrast to other philosophical positions, such as rationalism, which argue that knowledge can be obtained through reason and deduction, independent of sensory experience.

Question 26

Ethnocentrism

Answer 26

concept in sociology and anthropology that refers to the tendency of individuals or groups to evaluate and judge other cultures, customs, beliefs, and practices based on the standards, values, and norms of their own culture
involves viewing one’s own culture as superior or as the “right” way of doing things and often results in a biased or prejudiced perspective toward other cultures.

Question 27

Evolutionary Psychology

Answer 27

examines human behavior and cognition through the lens of evolutionary theory
seeks to understand how human psychological traits, such as emotions, social behaviors, cognitive processes, and instincts, have evolved over time as adaptations to the challenges and opportunities presented by the environment and our ancestors’ way of life.

Question 28

Experimental Psychologist

Answer 28

conducts research and experiments to study and better understand various aspects of human behavior and cognition

Question 29

Humanism

Answer 29

psychological perspective and movement that emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis
emphasizes the study of the whole person, focusing on aspects of human experience such as consciousness, emotions, values, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Question 30

Industrial/Organizational Psychologist

Answer 30

applies principles and methods of psychology to the workplace and organizational settings
primary focus is on understanding and improving various aspects of work and employment to enhance both individual and organizational effectiveness

Question 31

Natural Selection

Answer 31

fundamental concept in the theory of evolution developed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century. It’s a process by which species of organisms evolve and adapt to their environments over time.
Variation: Within any given population of organisms, there is genetic variation. This variation can be in the form of differences in traits, characteristics, or behaviors among individuals. These variations are often hereditary, passed down from one generation to the next through genes.
Competition: Resources in the environment, such as food, shelter, and mates, are limited. This leads to competition among individuals within a population for these resources. Not all individuals can successfully reproduce or survive due to these limitations.
Differential Survival and Reproduction: Because of the variations in traits, some individuals have traits that give them a better chance of surviving and reproducing in their particular environment. These individuals are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation.
Heritability: The traits that give certain individuals an advantage in surviving and reproducing are often heritable. This means that the offspring of these individuals are more likely to inherit these advantageous traits.
Accumulation of Beneficial Traits: Over generations, as individuals with advantageous traits reproduce and pass on those traits to their offspring, these traits become more prevalent in the population. This process results in the gradual change of the population’s characteristics, leading to adaptation to the specific environmental conditions.
Environmental Change: Natural selection is an ongoing process that operates in response to changes in the environment. If the environment changes significantly, the traits that were advantageous in the old environment may no longer be beneficial, and new traits may become advantageous. This leads to further adaptation and evolution over time.

Question 32

Personality Psychology

Answer 32

focuses on the study of individual differences in human personality and how these differences influence various aspects of behavior, thoughts, and emotions
seeks to understand and describe the unique patterns of characteristics, traits, and behaviors that make each person distinct from others.

Question 33

Positive Psychology

Answer 33

focuses on the scientific study of human strengths, well-being, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling and flourishing life
emerged in the late 20th century as a response to the predominantly problem-focused approach of traditional psychology, which often focused on mental disorders and dysfunction
seeks to understand and promote the positive aspects of human experience and psychological functioning

Question 34

Psychiatry

Answer 34

medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses and disorders
medical doctors who specialize in the field of psychiatry and are trained to assess both the physical and psychological aspects of mental health.

Question 35

Psychoanalytic Theory

Answer 35

framework for understanding human behavior, personality development, and mental processes developed by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Unconscious Mind: Freud believed that much of human mental activity occurs at an unconscious level, where thoughts, desires, and memories are not immediately accessible to conscious awareness. These unconscious elements influence our behavior and thoughts.

Question 36

Psychometrics

Answer 36

field of psychology that focuses on the measurement of psychological traits, abilities, attitudes, and behaviors
involves the development, validation, and application of psychological tests and assessment tools to measure various aspects of human psychology
plays a crucial role in research, clinical assessment, education, and a wide range of other fields.

Question 37

Psychology

Answer 37

the scientific study of the mind and behavior
aimed at understanding and explaining how individuals think, feel, and act in various situations and contexts
seeks to explore the mental processes that underlie human and animal behavior, as well as the factors that influence behavior.

Question 38

Social Psychologist

Answer 38

a psychologist who specializes in the study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence or actions of others within a social context.
investigate a wide range of topics related to human social interactions, including group dynamics, social influence, attitudes, prejudice, conformity, aggression, and interpersonal relationships

Question 39

Stimulus

Answer 39

any event, situation, object, or experience that triggers a response or reaction from an organism, typically a living being such as a human or an animal. Stimuli can be external or internal, and they play a fundamental role in the study of behavior, cognition, and perception.

Question 40

Theory

Answer 40

a structured and organized framework of ideas and concepts that aims to explain and predict various aspects of human behavior, cognition, emotion, or mental processes.

Question 41

Unconscious

Answer 41

According to Freud, the unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior
Freud based his concept of the unconscious on a variety of observations. For instance, he noticed that seemingly meaningless slips of the tongue (such as “I decided to take a summer school curse”) often appeared to reveal a person’s true feelings.
Noted that his patients’ dreams often seemed to express important feelings they were unaware of
Eventually concluded that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at an unconscious level.

Question 42

Introspection

Answer 42

Introspection is a method of self-report. It has rigid rules for its proper use, including the following:
The observer/introspectionist must be in a state of “strained attention.”
The observation must be able to “repeat several times.”
The stimuli must be manipulable.

Question 43

The Stimulus Error

Answer 43

Titchener (1909) would not allow his self-reporting subjects to use common, everyday words. According to Titchener, anyone who used everyday words committed what he called “the stimulus error”

Question 44

Identify the origins of the word psychology

Answer 44

The word psychology comes from the two Greek roots psyche, meaning the soul, and logos, referring to the study of a subject.
Was created in the 16th century, when psyche referred to something distinct from the body.
In the 18th century, the meaning of the word changed to “the study of the mind.”

Question 45

Summarize Wundt’s accomplishments and contributions to the field of psychology

Answer 45

Establishment of the first psychology laboratory in 1879
Helped develop structuralism
Differentiated psychology from philosophy. Emphasized empirical observation and measurement
Published several books, including “Principles of Physiological Psychology” and “Outlines of Psychology
Ideas contributed to the development of functionalism and behaviorism

Question 46

Compare structuralism and functionalism, and discuss their impact on the development of psychology.

Answer 46

Structuralism - focuses on the basic elements of consciousness and the structure of the mind. Used introspection.
Functionalism - shifted the focus from the structure of consciousness to the functions of the mind. How do mental processes serve adaptive purposes?
Structuralism contributed to the development of experimental psychology
Functionalism’s study of adaptation helped pave the way for educational, industrial, and clinical psychology
Both influenced subsequent psychological theories such as behaviorism.

Question 47

Describe Watson’s view of psychology with special reference to the nature-nurture issue and animal research.

Answer 47

Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism.
psychologists could study anything that people do or say—shopping, playing chess, eating, complimenting a friend—but they could not study scientifically the thoughts, wishes, and feelings that might accompany these observable behaviors
behaviorists eventually came to view psychology’s mission as an attempt to relate overt behaviors (“responses”) to observable events in the environment (“stimuli”).
the issue of nature versus nurture: whether behavior is determined mainly by genetic inheritance (“nature”) or by environment and experience (“nurture”).
Watson downplayed the importance of heredity, maintaining that behavior is governed primarily by the environment

Question 48

Why did the Humanist psychologists take issue with the behaviorist school?

Answer 48

The principal charge hurled at both schools was that they were “dehumanizing.”
Psychoanalytic theory was attacked for its belief that behavior is dominated by primitive, sexual urges.
Behaviourism was criticized for its preoccupation with the study of simple animal behavior.
Both theories were criticized because they suggested that people are not masters of their own destinies. Above all, many people argued, both schools of thought failed to recognize the unique qualities of human behavior.

Question 49

Why did Freud’s psychoanalytic theory encounter resistance within psychology?

Answer 49

Lack of empirical evidence
Overemphasis on sexuality
Influence of the unconscious
Sexism and gender bias
Competing theory of behaviorism and later cognitive psychology

Question 50

Who was B. F. Skinner? Describe Skinner’s viewpoint with regard to private events and free will. Describe the influence that Skinner had on psychology and more widely outside of academia.

Answer 50

an American psychologist and behaviorist who is best known for his influential work on operant conditioning and his radical behaviorist perspective.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism rejected the concept of “mind” and internal mental states as explanatory constructs. He argued that psychology should focus solely on observable behavior and the environmental factors that influence it. This meant that subjective experiences, thoughts, and emotions—what he referred to as “private events”—were not considered central to the study of behavior.
perspective on free will was deterministic. He asserted that behavior is shaped and controlled by the environment, specifically through the principles of reinforcement and punishment. According to his operant conditioning theory, behavior is a result of the consequences that follow it. Free will, in the sense of unconstrained, autonomous choice, was not a central concept in Skinner’s work. He believed that even seemingly spontaneous or voluntary actions were influenced by prior conditioning and environmental factors.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s work on operant conditioning was a significant contribution to the field of psychology. He developed the concept of operant behavior, which involves behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.
Skinner Box: Skinner is famous for his invention of the Skinner Box, an experimental apparatus used to study animal behavior, particularly the behavior of laboratory animals like rats and pigeons. The Skinner Box allowed for precise control of environmental variables and the investigation of operant conditioning processes.
Technology and Innovation: Skinner’s ideas about using technology to enhance learning and behavior change have influenced the fields of instructional design, human-computer interaction, and gamification.

Question 51

Describe humanistic psychology, and briefly discuss its contribution to psychology.

Answer 51

Self-Actualization: every individual has the innate potential to strive for self-actualization, which is the realization of one’s full potential and the pursuit of personal growth and fulfillment.
Person-Centered Therapy: emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence in the therapeutic relationship.
Free Will: Humanistic psychologists emphasize the role of free will in human behavior. They argue that individuals have the capacity to make conscious choices and decisions that influence their lives, rather than being entirely determined by external forces or unconscious processes.
Emphasis on Subjectivity: Humanistic psychology highlighted the importance of studying and respecting individuals’ subjective experiences, paving the way for research in areas such as positive psychology, self-esteem, and self-concept.

Question 52

What are six contemporary theoretical perspectives within psychology? Briefly explain each.

Answer 52

Behavioral - Watson, Skinner. Only observable events (stimulus-response relations) can be studied scientifically
Psychoanalytic - Freud, Jung. Unconscious motives and experiences in early childhood govern personality and mental disorders
Humanistic - Rogers, Maslow. Humans are free, rational beings with the potential for growth, and they are fundamentally different from animals
Cognitive - Piaget, Chomsky, Simon. Human behavior cannot be fully understood without examining how people acquire, store, and process information
Behavioral Neuroscience - Olds, Sperry, Hubel, Wiesel. An organism’s functioning can be explained in terms of the brain structure and biochemical processes that underlie behavior
Evolutionary - Buss, Daly, Wilson, Cosmides, Tooby. Behavioral patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems; natural selection favors behaviors that enhance reproductive success.

Question 53

Discuss how psychology developed in Canada, from the first departments to the establishment of the Canadian Psychological Association.

Answer 53

first experimental laboratory in the British Empire was established by James Mark Baldwin at the University of Toronto in 1891
The first psychology course offered at a Canadian university was likely at Dalhousie in 1838
became more common in the 1850s, beginning then at McGill University in Montreal and the University of Toronto. Much of the rest of the country followed soon after.
Psychology in Canada is distinct from psychology in the United States in several respects, including the nature of the impact of Canadian cultural diversity on the directions taken in research and theory in the area of cultural psychology
Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) was formed in 1939.
CPA is Canada’s largest organization for psychology and has 7116 members and affiliates, over half of whom are women.

Question 54

Describe two recent trends in psychological research that reflect a return to psychology’s intellectual roots.

Answer 54

Cognitive - moved away from the dominant behaviorist perspective, which focused on observable behaviors, and returned to the study of mental processes, such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving. This marked a return to psychology’s roots in introspection and the study of consciousness.
Humanistic - emerged as a reaction to the dominant psychoanalytic and behaviorist approaches of the time. represented a return to psychology’s roots in the study of the whole person, emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experiences.

Question 55

Why has Western psychology had scant interest in other cultures? Why has this begun to change?

Answer 55

Written by white men and presumed to apply to everyone
Trend: advances in communication, travel, and international trade have “shrunk’ the world
Trend: ethnic makeup of western world becoming a diverse mosaic
Led to a dramatic surge in research on cultural factors

Question 56

List and describe the four professional specialties within applied psychology. Distinguish between clinical psychology and psychiatry.

Answer 56

(1) clinical psychology
Assess and diagnose various mental health conditions
Use interviews and standardized tests to gather information about symptoms and experiences
(2) counseling psychology
subfield of psychology that focuses on helping individuals of all ages deal with emotional, social, vocational, educational, and health-related issues
Counselors, who are trained professionals in this field, work to improve their clients’ overall well-being and help them develop strategies to address specific concerns or challenges.
(3) educational and school psychology
Address educational issues
Improve teaching and learning processes
Work in schools, colleges, universities, and educational research institutions
Study development of learners across their lifespan
(4) industrial and organizational psychology.
Study various aspects of the workplace, including employee behavior, motivation, productivity, leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational structure
Address ethical and legal concerns like employee rights, discrimination, harassment, and compliance with employee laws and regulations
Promote diversity and inclusion
Psychiatry vs clinical psychology
Education and training
Scope of practice
Approach to treatment

Question 57

Define what is meant by multifactorial causation of behavior.

Answer 57

refers to the idea that human behavior is influenced and determined by a complex interplay of multiple factors or variables rather than being the result of a single cause or factor.
recognizes that behavior is the outcome of a combination of various influences from biological, psychological, social, environmental, and cultural domains.

Question 58

Discuss three important considerations in designing a program to encourage adequate studying

Answer 58

Set up a schedule for studying
Find a place where you can concentrate
Reward your studying

Question 59

Define critical thinking. Describe the skills exhibited by critical thinkers.

Answer 59

Critical thinking is the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome
They understand and use the principles of scientific investigation.
They apply the rules of formal and informal logic.
They carefully evaluate the quality of information.
They analyze arguments for the soundness of the conclusions.

Question 60

Discuss evolutionary theory explanations for gender differences in spatial abilities.

Answer 60

On the average, males tend to perform slightly better than females on most visual-spatial tasks, especially tasks involving mental rotation of images and navigation in space
gender differences originated in human evolution as a result of the sex-based division of labor in ancient hunting-and-gathering societies
According to this analysis, males’ superiority in mental rotation and navigation developed because the chore of hunting was largely assigned to men over the course of human history, and these skills would have facilitated success on hunting trips (by helping men to traverse long distances, aim projectiles at prey, and so forth) and thus been favored by natural selection
In contrast, women in ancient societies generally had responsibility for gathering food rather than hunting it
efficient division of labor because women spent much of their adult lives pregnant, nursing, or caring for the young and, therefore, could not travel long distances.
females ought to be superior to males on spatial skills that would have facilitated gathering, such as memory for locations