Unit 3 AOS 2 SAC 1 - Learning

Question 1

Synaptogenesis

Answer 1

The formation of a synapse between neurons

Question 2

Neural plasticity stages

Answer 2

Proliferation
Migration
Circuit formation
Circuit pruning
Myelination

Question 3

What is physical evidence of a memory known as?

Answer 3

Memory trace

Question 4

During learning, the role of neurotransmitters is to

Answer 4

transmit chemical messages across the synaptic gap between neurons.

Question 5

The increase in neural strength due to increased synaptic stimulation is known as what?

Answer 5

Long Term Potentiation

Question 6

It is thought that cells that fire together _______ together.

Answer 6

wire

Question 7

How is increased synaptic strength shown in neurotransmitters?

Answer 7

An increased number of neurotransmitters

Question 8

How is increased synaptic strength shown in postsynaptic neuron?

Answer 8

More receptors

Question 9

The reduction of synaptic efficiency is known as what?

Answer 9

Long term depression

Question 10

As a result of learning and new experiences, the brain modifies its neural pathways by

Answer 10

changing the strength of the synaptic connections between neurons.

Question 11

Long term depression

Answer 11

• the reduction in the efficiency in synaptic connections
• can last for hours or longer
• allows the strengthening to continue in neural connections in aid in encoding information

Question 12

Neurotransmitters vs Neurohormones

Answer 12

Neurotransmitter:
- a chemical substance 
released at the synapse to interact between a pre and post synaptic neuron
- only function as a neurotransmitter
- can dampen or enhance a response
e.g. glutamate

Neurohormones
- a chemical substance
released by a neuron and secreted into circulation (effect in the body)
- can function as a hormone OR a neurotransmitter
- can dampen or enhance a response
e.g. adrenaline

Question 13

Glutamate

Answer 13

• main excitatory neurotransmitter
• well known for its role in cognition, learning and memory
• glutamate can bind neurons together through synaptic plasticity involved in long term potentiation.

Question 14

Adrenaline

Answer 14

• can enhance long term memory
• important for encoding emotional memories
• ensures memory strength relates to memory importance

Question 15

Which type of neurotransmitter can affect a group of neurons?

Answer 15

Neurohormone

Question 16

Which neurotransmitter is known for its role in memory and learning?

Is this neurotransmitter excitatory or inhibitory?

Answer 16

Glutamate

Excitatory

Question 17

Which hormone is said to enhance emotional memory formation?

Answer 17

Adrenaline

Question 18

True or False

There are no negative effects from too much glutamate in your system.

Answer 18

False

Question 19

Classical conditioning

Answer 19

A simple form of learning, which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli to produce a naturally involuntary occurring response

Question 20

Pavlov experiment elements

Answer 20

NS - bell
UCS - food
UCR - salivate at food
CS - bell
CR - salivate at bell

Question 21

What sort of response is produced in classical conditioning?

Answer 21

Involuntary

Question 22

What is the name of the stimulus that produces no response?

Answer 22

Neutral stimulus

Question 23

What needs to happen to the UCS & CS for classical conditioning to take place?

Answer 23

Repeated association

Question 24

What is a naturally occurring response known as?

Answer 24

Unconditioned response

Question 25

What is a learned response known as?

Answer 25

Conditioned response

Question 26

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 26

When an individual only elicits the conditioned response to the original conditioned stimulus - not to other stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus.

Question 27

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 27

The tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a response that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the conditioned response.

Question 28

Neural plasticity

Answer 28

The physiological basis of learning and memory and is the ability of the brain to change in structure and function as a result of “experience” throughout the lifespan.

Question 29

Adaptive plasticity

Answer 29

Refers to the change in the brain’s neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for lost function and also to maximize remaining functions in the event of brain injury by sprouting and rerouting connections as we re-learn experiences or even recover from brain trauma. This helps explain why a younger person is more able to learn more quickly.

Question 30

Developmental plasticity

Answer 30

Refers to the change in the brain’s neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development.

Question 31

Long Term Potentiation

Answer 31

LTP refers to the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in the enhanced or more effective neurotransmission across the synapse. The pre-synaptic neuron will gain more vesicles and neurotransmitters and the post-synaptic neuron’s dendrites will become bushier as it gains more receptor sites - establishes long term storage due to receiving more neurotransmitters

Question 32

Long Term Depression

Answer 32

LTD refers to the selective weakening of neural connections via synapses - synaptic pruning / circuit pruning - it limits the number of synapses or memory traces. If a circuit is not used i.e. if it’s not activated, we lose it. This is so that we don’t stop the encoding of new and more important information. LTD ultimately improves the efficiency (conserving energy use) of the synaptic connections so that they are more quickly activated next time.

Question 33

What LTD does:

Answer 33

○ Results from a lack of stimulation or prolonged low level of a neural pathway
○ Weakens or decreases strength of neural pathways
○ Allows us to adjust, edit or correct our thinking when problem solving or our movements if performing a skill

Question 34

What LTP does:

Answer 34

○ Results from repeated stimulation / activation of a neural pathway
○ Strengthens neural pathways and allows an enhanced and more efficient synaptic transmission
○ Allows us to strengthen important / wanted / useful memories

Question 35

Glutamate role in memory: when it does not, LTD.

Answer 35

Is the main excitatory neurotransmitter and makes the post-synaptic neuron more likely to fire. It promotes growth and strengthening, which represents the memory of something learnt and has a vital role in LTP & LTD. When glutamate excites neurons it causes LTP, when it does not, LTD.

Question 36

Extinction CC

Answer 36

Gradual decrease in strength/rate of CR when CS is presented alone (UCS removed).

E.g. Over time, the bell alone produced less saliva.

Question 37

Spontaneous recovery CC

Answer 37

Reappearance of CR when CS is presented alone, after a CS-free rest period.

E.g. After 24 hours without ringing the bell (rest period), the bell is rung and saliva is produced.

Question 38

Little Albert CC

Answer 38

○ Before conditioning:
■ Neutral Stimulus (before conditioning): White rat.
■ UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Loud noise.
■ UCR (Unconditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to loud noise.
○ During Conditioning:
■ UCS + NS (repeated pairing): Leads to fear and crying
○ After Conditioning:
■ CS (Conditioned Stimulus): White rat.
■ CR (Conditioned Response): Fear, crying in response to white rat.
■ Stimulus Generalisation: Albert also became fearful of rabbits, furry dogs, fur coats and Santa masks.

Question 39

Little Albert Ethical Considerations

Answer 39

○ Beneficence: The possible benefits of the research should be maximised to outweigh the possible risks to the participant (which should be minimised).
■ Little Albert: the experimenters did not balance the possible advantages of the research against the obvious discomfort and risk of harm to Albert.
○ Respect for Persons: The researcher should properly regard the welfare, rights, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of all individuals involved in research.
■ Little Albert: this needed to be strictly upheld because, as an infant, he was unable to assert himself in any way at all.
○ Other Ethical Issues in Classical Conditioning: Participant’s rights, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, withdrawal rights, no debriefing (no extinction of CR)

Question 40

Operant conditioning

Answer 40

A form of learning in which behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences. An operant is a response that occurs without any stimulus/ It is voluntary behaviour that acts upon the environment in the same way every time.

Question 41

The A-B-C of operant conditioing

Answer 41

The Antecedent (the environment) that makes the conditions right for the Behaviour to follow and be reinforced by its Consequences. E.g. As you are driving to work, you see that the traffic light is red (antecedent). You stop the car (behaviour) and therefore avoid an accident (consequence). The learner is active.

Question 42

Skinner’s box experiment

Answer 42

A hungry rat was placed in a Skinner Box (antecedent). It scurried around randomly touching floor, walls etc. Eventually the rat would accidentally press the lever, which dispensed a food pellet that the rat ate. The rat continued random movements and eventually pressed the lever again (rat ate). With additional repetitions of lever pressing followed by food, the rat’s random movements began to disappear and were replaced by more consistent lever pressing. Eventually the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat each pellet. The food pellet was a reward – reinforcer (consequence) for the correct response, pushing the lever (behaviour).

Question 43

Positive reinforcement

Answer 43

Refers to the use of a stimulus to strengthen or increase the frequency/likelihood of a desired response. Occurs when a positive reinforcer is given, after the desired response has been made. E.g. If a child cleans their room, they are given a reward (e.g. chocolate). This increases the likelihood that in future, they will continue to clean their room.

Question 44

Negative reinforcement

Answer 44

Refers to the removal of an undesirable stimulus. Negative Reinforcement increases the frequency/ likelihood of the behaviour continuing through the removal of an undesirable stimulus. Eg. If our behaviour removes a negative consequence when presented with that negative consequence in the future we are likely to repeat the behaviour that got rid of it the last time!

Question 45

Positive punishment

Answer 45

Punishment refers to the delivery (addition) of a punisher (negative/unpleasant stimulus) following any unwanted behaviour.

Punishment aims to decrease unwanted behaviour!

A punisher is any stimulus that provides undesirable consequences for the person or animal. E.g. People are punished for committing crimes in order to discourage them from doing it again.

Question 46

Response cost

Answer 46

Response cost is used to describe punishment occurring as the result of removing (subtracting) a positive reinforcer following unwanted behaviour. Response cost aims to decrease unwanted behaviour!
Eg: For good behaviour throughout the year – your teacher is going to show you a film in your last lesson. But you wagged last class so now you don’t get to watch the film.

Question 47

Reinforcement vs Punishment

• R: Increase
• P: Decrease

Answer 47

Reinforcement INCREASES a specific desired behaviour from reoccurring

Punishment DECREASES a specific undesired behaviour from reoccurring

Question 48

Difference between negative reinforcement and punishment

Answer 48

Punishment is used to reduce the incidence of a specific response, such as receiving a detention for fighting, or receiving a huge fine for speeding while, negative reinforcement is used to increase the likelihood of a specific response by removing something unpleasant, such as cleaning your room to avoid being grounded.

Question 49

Extinction OC

Answer 49

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement.
○ For example, if a mum wants her son to increase his bathing behavior, she can give him an extra 30 minutes of TV time after he bathes. Extinction would occur if she stop giving him TV time for bathing and he stops seeing the association.

Question 50

Stimulus generalisation OC

Answer 50

Stimulus generalisation is when the correct (desired) response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the antecedent that was presented when the original behaviour was reinforced.
○ For example, Skinner trained pigeons to peck when they saw a green light, however when a red light came on they would also peck therefore demonstrating stimulus generalisation

Question 51

Stimulus discrimination OC

Answer 51

When an organism makes the correct response to the antecedent that was originally reinforced, but does not respond to others, no matter how similar.
○ For example, Sniffer dogs who are taught to discriminate between many different illegal substances and instead of barking at any illegal stimulus, the dog will exhibit slightly different behaviour depending of type of illegal substance found.
E.g. if narcotics found dog will sit down and if marijuana found dog will park twice.

Question 52

Spontaneous recovery OC

Answer 52

After the apparent extinction of a behaviour, Spontaneous Recovery can occur and the organism will once again show the original behaviour in the absence of any reinforcement, following a rest period. (24 hours)

Question 53

Difference between classical and operant conditioning

Answer 53

CC A form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two or more different stimuli to produce a conditioned reflexive response
OC A form of learning in which behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences. An operant is a response that occurs without any stimulus.

CC Passive
OC Active

CC Involuntary
OC Voluntary

CC Pairing of stimuli (NS+UCS) followed by response (UCR) - reflexive behaviour in response to stimuli
OC Antecedent (environment) leads to a response (desired or undesired behaviour) and is followed by a consequence. The consequence occurs after the response to strengthen/weaken behaviour.
*A before B

CC Repeated pairing of the NS immediately before the UCS
OC The establishment of a desired behaviour through consequence immediately following behaviour

CC Stimuli similar to the CS also leads to the CR
OC Environments/stimuli similar to the antecedent also lead to the desired response

CC Only the CS from original learning leads to CR
OC The behaviour will only occur when the learner is presented with the antecedent from original learning

CC Gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a learnt reflexive response following removal of the UCS
OC Gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a learnt response following removal of the consequence

CC Following extinction and after a rest period (24hr) the presentation of the CS alone will once again lead to CR (although lacks intensity)
OC Following extinction and after a rest period (24hr) the presentation of the antecedent once again leads to original behaviour (even with the absence of consequences

Question 54

Observational Learning

Answer 54

When an individual uses observation of another’s actions (and their consequences) to guide their own future actions.

Question 55

Vicarious conditioning

Answer 55

Individual watches another person displaying behaviour (that is either reinforced or punished), then subsequently behaves exactly the same way, a modified way or refrains from the behaviour, as a result of what they observed.
○ Vicarious reinforcement: increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.
○ Vicarious punishment: decreases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is punished.

Question 56

Observational Learning ARRMR

Answer 56

○ Attention: To learn through observation we must closely watch the model’s behaviour & consequences. STM => LTM
■ Can be greatly influenced by many variables
○ Retention: The observer needs to make a mental representation of the task/models behaviour and store memory (LTM) so that it can be utilised at a later time
■ The more meaningful we make that mental representation, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary
○ Reproduction: The observer must have the physical and intellectual capability / competency to convert these mental representations into actions, imitating what was observed
■ Must have the potential to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour
○ Motivation: The learner will perform / imitate the behaviour only if they want / desire or reason to do so, especially by the use of reinforcement
■ The presence of reinforcement of punishment, either to the model (vicariously) or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process
○ Reinforcement: Reinforcement influences the likelihood of the learner imitating the model’s behaviour. The expectation of reinforcement influences the cognitive processes of the observer
■ If modelled behaviour is reinforced it results in increased motivation and vice versa. When a behaviour has been performed and a positive outcome has been achieved - the behaviour will likely be performed again

Question 57

Example of the stages of observational learning

Answer 57

After witnessing an older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without asking, the younger child does not take cookies without permission
○ Attention: Watches the older sibling and sees the consequences of taking a cookie without permission
○ Retention: Uses retention to make a mental representation of the senario to store in LTM for later
○ Reproduction: The younger child will use the mental representation stored when tempted to take a cookie as they have the competency
○ Motivation: The younger child is motivated as they do not want to experience any punishment
○ Reinforcement: The parents could rewards the younger child for not stealing any cookies every now and then or if the younger child does it, they can punish them

Question 58

3 factors which make it more likely that the learner will pay attention to the model:

• E. reinforcement
• V. reinforcement
• S. reinforcement

Answer 58

○ External reinforcement: learning by personally receiving positive or negative reinforcement from external source
■ E.g. Receiving money, praise, food, awards

○ Vicarious reinforcement (or punishment): Observing the modelling behaviour being reinforced ( or punished) for other people.
■ E.g. Observing an older sibling who works hard to achieve good grades at school (rewarded for their efforts) may motivate a sibling to do the same

○Self-reinforcement (intrinsic / internal reinforcement): Reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set ourselves (can be positive or negative reinforcement).
■ E.g. Having a sense of pride or satisfaction with our own efforts, such as after climbing a mountain.

Question 59

Latent learning

Answer 59

Latent learning is the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation.

Question 60

OL Question

• Sample Question: Explain how Joseph could teach Eli to kick a football though observational learning.

Answer 60

• Attention: Joseph ensures that Eli is actively watching as he takes four steps and kicks the ball.
• Retention: Eli stores a mental representation of what his father is doing when he kicks the ball.
• Reproduction: Eli is physically and mentally capable of performing the actions of kicking a football. E.g he is old enough to have established good hand-eye coordination.
• Motivation: Eli has a desire to kick the football like his Dad because he wants to play AFL like his Dad.
• Reinforcement: Eli kicks the ball between the posts and feels proud so he wants to kick the ball again.

Question 61

Sample Question: Explain how Karen could teach a skill to her dog through operant conditioning.
1. 2. 3.

Answer 61

Phase 1 – antecedent. In this phase, the learner is presented with a signal (stimulus) to associate with the production of the desired behaviour. An example related to the scenario would be Karen holding out her hand to Treasure and saying “shake”.
Phase 2 – behaviour. In this phase, the desired behaviour is produced. In this scenario, the response/ behaviour would be Treasure lifting his paw to shake Karen’s hand, or Karen lifting Treasure’s paw to shake to assist him to produce the behaviour.
Phase 3 – consequence. In this phase, the learner is rewarded when the desired behaviour is produced. An example related to the scenario would be Karen giving Treasure a treat after he produced the desired behaviour, or praising Treasure.

Question 62

CC Answer Formula:

Answer 62

• Before conditioning:
- Neutral stimulus (NS) produces no response
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally produces the unconditioned response (UCR)
• During conditioning (acquisition): NS is repeatedly presented immediately before the UCS to produce the UCR.
• After conditioning: CS alone produces CR
• Note: The UCR and the CR are similar, but you must include the stimulus that triggers the response. E.g.
salivating for food or salivating for the bell (not just salivating).