Unit 3 AOS 2 memory and brain

Question 1

What is classical conditioning and all of elements of classical conditioning in relation to the three phased model

Answer 1

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two or more stimuli

(Conditioning = learning)

Classical conditioning in relation to the three- phased model refers to the 3 stages of classical conditioning which are
- Before conditioning
- During conditioning
- After conditioning

Question 2

All relevant sub divisions of classical condition as a 3 phased model

Answer 2

1. Before conditioning
   - UCS (Unconditional stimulus) is the stimulus that consistently triggers a specific natural occurring automatic response

• UCR(Unconditionel response) Is the response which occurs automatically whenever the UCS is presented (i.e saliva)
• NS (Neutral stimulus) does not trigger in the before conditioning stage because no learning has taken place

2. During conditioning (Acquisition phase)
   - NS{aka CS}
   -UCR
   -UC

3.After conditioning
- CS (conditioned stimulus that was neutral at the start of conditioning process and now triggers the desired response (i.e bell)

-CR (conditioned response) The learned response that is produced by CS (i.e salivating)

Question 3

What is operant condition and the 3 phased model of operant conditioning

Answer 3

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where by the consequence of the behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be preformed again the the future. If behaviour will tend to be repeated if there are desirable consequences (getting a treat) or will enable an undersirable consequence

The 3 phased model is

1. The antecedent (A) a stimulus that occurs before the behavior (the trigger), physical environment
2. The behavior (B) That occurs because of the antecedent
3. The consequence (C) to the behavior

Question 4

What is reinforcement and whats its aim with the 2 types of reinforcement

Answer 4

Reinforcement (Aims to repeat behavior)

Positive reinforcement - Occurs from giving / applying a positive reinforcement after the desired response has been made which leads to the behavior being repeated in the future

Negative reinforcement- Is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus, it too has effects of increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated

Question 5

What is punishment and the 2 main types of punishment

Answer 5

Punishment is aiming to NOT repeat behavior

Positive punishment- Involves providing a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response occurring again e.g. Smacking a child

Negative punishment- Involves the removal of a valued/ desired stimulus which reduces the likelihood of a response being repeated e.g taking an Ipad

Question 6

Differences between negative reinforcement with forms of punishment

Answer 6

Remember reinforcement should be associated with repeating behavior so if we wanna repeat behavior it is negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement involves removing/ avoiding something unpleasant/negative (e.g. speeding fine) so behavior of driving the speed limit can be repeated

Punishment involves applying something unpleasant/negative like pepper on somebody tounge or removing something vluble (tacking away phone) so that a behavior is not repeated in the future (wont swear anymore or wont use phone when not allowed)

Question 7

What is observational learning and the elements of observational learning +all relevant terminology

Answer 7

Observational learning occurs when somebody uses observations of another person actions and their consequence to guide their future actions

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement

Model=Person being observed
Often a person with status or image is a desired model
At other times the model is not the motivation arises from a need to know
‘Vicarious means learning through observation

Question 8

What is attention in relation to observational learning, what stage is attention in observational learning

Answer 8

Attention is- In order to learn through observation we must closely watch the models behavior in order to recognize the distinctive feature

A couple factors are
- Perceptual capabilitys of the observer (seeing)
- Motivation and intrest of observer
- Sitution in which behaviour is being observed ‘
- distractions

Question 9

What is retention in relation to observational learning

Answer 9

Having observed the model we must be able to remember the models behavior sometimes behavior that is learned through observation is not needed immediately in which case it is stored memory’s until required

Linking a visual image with a verbal description is an efficient strategy to assist the memory process

Question 10

What is reproduction in reference to observational learning

Answer 10

When the models behavior has been closely attended to and retain memory, we can attempt to imitate what has been observed

We must have the ability/ comperity ti put into practice what we have observed (remembered)

Question 11

Motivation- reinforcement in relation to observational learning and the aspects to reinforcement

Answer 11

Learner must also be motivated to preform the behavior unless the behavior is useful or provides a reward, it is unlikely that it is learner will want to learn the behavior in the first place

Aspects to motivation through the following form of reinforcement
- External reinforcement
- Vicarious reinforcement
- self reinforcement

Question 12

What is external reinforcement

Answer 12

Usually in a tangible form where by something positive is received (getting good grade because of studying)

Question 13

What is Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 13

Involves observing the modelled behavior reinforced for other people, and then wanting to produce the behavior yourself

Question 14

What is self- reinforcement

Answer 14

Occurs when we are reinforced by meeting certain standard of performance set for oneself

Question 15

What are songlines

Answer 15

(AKA dreaming tracks) are travel routes that consist of a series of locations and/or landmarks, most of which have a story, song, dance or ceremony attached to it

By describing and/or walking the songline, an individual is exposed to each story song dance and ceremony. In turn the individual can acquire a massive amount of info on things like plant life native animals land formations land use, trade, medicine rights and responsibility

Question 16

3 sub divisons of atkinson and shriffrin multi staged model of memory

Answer 16

• Short term memory (STM)
• Long term memory (LTM)
• Sensory memory

Question 17

What is sensory memory

Answer 17

Sensory memory is new sensory information that is in the form of sight, sound ,taste, smell and touch. Therefore sensory information is tge entry point of new information into the memory system . Info is held here just long enough for it to be encoded unto a useable form and then transfer into STM

Question 18

What is the duration and capacity of sensory info

Answer 18

Duration
- It stores vast quantities of info for a very brief period of time (milliseconds)
Capacity
- Unlimited

Question 19

What are the 2 types of sensory information and the duration of these types of sensory information?

Answer 19

1. Iconic memory- The name given to visual sensory information
   Visual images in their original form are usually retained in iconic memory for 1/3 of a second. E.g if looking at a flower and you close your eye you can imagine a image of the flower, this will happen for 1/3 of a second for encoding
2. Echoic memory- The name given to auditory sensory information. (called echoic memory

Echoic memory stores info for 3-4 seconds. So it stores for longer than iconic memory, auditor info must also be held for long enough for long enough for all parts of speech within a list of words to be identified

Question 20

How long does iconic and echoic memory last in duration (quick)

Answer 20

Iconic (visual memory) 0.2-0.4 seconds 1/3 of a second

Echoic memory is about 3-4 seconds

Question 21

What is short term memory

Answer 21

STM stores a limited amount of info for a brief period unless the information is described as a ‘temporary working memory ‘ in which we manipulate information that is held to preform everyday functions. It holds the information that we are consciously aware of ay any given time (receives information from the sensory register as well as retrieving previously stored info from long term memory)

Question 22

Capacity and duration of STM

Answer 22

Capacity- It has a limited capacity and can only hold around 7+2 items (5-9 items) of info at a time

Duration- STM holds info for up to 30 seconds unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer. There is achieved through rehearsal and at 18-20 seconds we have almost lost all info

Question 23

What is rehearsal and the 2 types of rehearsal (It can increase STM)

Answer 23

Rehearsal- Rehearsal is the process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory

Maintenace rehearsal- Involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain in short memory

Elaborative rehearsal- Is the process if linking new info in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information to aid in it;s storage and retrieval from long term memory e.g. mind mapping

Question 24

Long term memory (LTM)

Answer 24

The long term stores hold information relatively permanent in a highly organized way and has essentially an unlimited capacity

information in LTM can be stored forever

Question 25

What are all sub divisons of long term memory

Answer 25

The main types of LTM are
1. Explicit memory
- Episodic memory
- semantic memory -

2. Implicit memory’s (procedural)
   - Procedural memories

Question 26

What are explicit memorys and all the subtypes

Answer 26

Explicit memory’s- (or declarative memory’s) are memory’s for factual specific info like names faces and events that have personal significance (e.g first day of school it is conscious memory, knowing that memory

Episodic memory- Episodic memory is the declarative memory system that holds information about specific events or personal events , Like a mental diary e.g recalling b day party

Semantic memory- Is the declarative memory system that stores the information we have about the world

Includes s[ecialised knowledge and expertise you remember the fact itself and it does not remember the place most of the time/ the place is irrelevant, like u don’t remember when you learnt that there was 12 months in a year but u know u remember it

Question 27

What are implicit memory’s and the subdivisions

Answer 27

Implicit (procedural) memory- Memorys of learnt actions and skills and does not require conscious or intentional retrieval, you are not aware you are remembering when preforming action and it happens effortlessly E.g playing table tennis

Often referred to as ‘non- declarative memories’ because people often find it difficult to state or describe in words what is being remembered but the memory can be described through behavior e.g knowing a password ‘knowing that memory

Procedural memories- Is memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously. It involves memories of ‘how to do something’ e.g how to use tennis racquet, usually demonstrated through behavior/ performance called kill, muscle or body movements little no effort to retrieve memory

Question 28

All of the tools and techniques for accessing info from LTM

Answer 28

Free recall- Is trying to retrieve as much information as possible from LTM, in any particular order and without the assistance of a prompt (cue). The stronger the neural pathway (LTP) the easier the recall

Cued recall- Is where we use prompt and/or retrieval cues to access information stored in LTM. Hints pictures and mnemonics are some prompts and/or retrieval cues out there, the more specific the prompt more likely info will be recalled

Recognition-Involves identifying the correct information from among a collection of options

Question 29

What are mnemonics and 3 main types

Answer 29

Are techniques/ tools that assist in the storage and retrieval of long term memories., effectiveness stems for ability to link between new info to be remembered and information that we have already stored safely away , they DO NOT simplify info instead they make things more elaborate.

3 main types
1. Acronyms
2. Acrostics
3. Method of Loci

Question 30

Define the 3 main mnemonics

Answer 30

Acronyms- The mnemonics involved creating words and/or sentences from a collection of letters, usually the starting letters of the information we are trying to remember e.g ANZAC

Acrostics- An acrostic is a sentence where the starting letter of each word match’s the starting letters of the items to be remembered strangely enough the quicker the sentence to more likely to be remembered

Method of loci- Involves linking/ tagging the items to be remembered with a specific position or location in a well known area, area could be small or large

Question 31

What are songlines (dreaming tracks)

Answer 31

Are navigational routes that consist of a sequence of locations and/or landmarks most of which have a story, song, dance ect

NOTE: Oral memory system

By describing and/or walking the route an individual is exposed to story song ect and can learn massive amounts of info

Question 32

All various structures of the brain

Answer 32

• Neocortex
• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
• Cerebrum
• Basal ganglia

Question 33

What does the neocortex to and what is it

Answer 33

The neocortex (aka cerebral cortex) is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum.

Long term explicit memory’s (semantic and episodic) are stored widely throughout the neocortex. Each fragment of a memory tends to be stored in the area(s) where it was processed. Complex neuropathways allow us to experience memory’s within the neocortex

Question 34

What does the hippocampus do and where is it located , + does it store long term memory’s and role

Answer 34

The hippocampus is located deep within the brain in an area called the medial temporal lobe

The hippocampus has a vitial role in the consolidation of explicit memory’s (semantic and episodic), consolidation is making a newly formed memory stable and enduring after learning

NOTE: The hippocampus DOES NOT store memory’s long term, the consolidation process enables information and memories to be successfully stored in neocortex

Damaged hippocampus DOES NOT prevent the creation of procedural or classically conditioned memory’s, evidently these memories are created and stored in other section

Question 35

What is the amygdala

Answer 35

A small structure sitting just above the hippocampus. It communicates with the hippocampus and other areas of the brain, also involved with processing and regulating emotional reactions, heavily involved in creation of emotions memories including classically conditioned fear

Question 36

What happens if the amygdala is damaged

Answer 36

Individuals tend to have difficulties processing, regulating and recalling emptions such as fear anger and aggression

There is also considerable research evidence that a damaged amygdala can leave an individual unable to learn to fear or feel threatened by dangerous things

Question 37

What is the basal ganglia

Answer 37

Basal ganglia is a set of structures near the amygdala and hippocampus

It is involved in encoding and storage of procedural memories such as habits and well practiced voluntary movements

It also accounts for why we become less responsibile to atimuli that we are repeatedly exposed to e.g getting used to loud noise in city

Question 38

What are some symptoms of a damaged basal ganglia

Answer 38

• Difficulty starting and sustaining movement
• Involuntary movements
• slowed movements

Question 39

What does the cerebellum do

Answer 39

The cerebellum is located at the base of the brin and looks like another mini brain. It contains more neurons than the rest of the brain combined (high condensity)

Known to be involved in encoding and temporary storage of procedural memories that require fine muscles ,movements, balance, posture and/or sequence of movements, long term storage is held within the neocortex

DOES NOT store explicit memories

Question 40

What are some symptoms of a damaged cerebellum

Answer 40

• Difficulty timing and controlling muscle movements
• Poor posture
• Balance problems
• Difficulties getting words out
• Loss of conditional responses piked up from classical conditioning
• Inability to judge distance and when to stop

Question 41

What is an imagined future

Answer 41

The ability to construct an imagined futures the ability to predict what will happen or what is needed in the future

Question 42

What types of memory’s are needed to make imagined futures

Answer 42

We rely heavily on episodic and semantic memories to help construct imagined futures

Question 43

What is aphantasia

Answer 43

When somebody cannot form a mental image in there head.

Question 44

What are some reasons for aphantasia

Answer 44

Some cases on aphantasia is from birth while other reports say aphantasia happens because of brain injury or depression

Another reason could be because people with aphantasia have weaker neural pathways

Question 45

What is Alzheimer’s and what are some effects of Alzheimer’s

Answer 45

Is a neurogenerative disease characterized by the gradual and widespread degeneration ( damaged or dying)

Some effects of Alzheimer’s are memory decline, personality changes and deterioration of cognitive and social skills as the neurons die the affected brain areas will shrink and waste

Question 46

What are some of the main steps of Alzheimer’s what is effected first ect ect

Answer 46

Diseases tends to start slowly and in the early stages symptoms are subtle including confusion, irritability and STM difficulties

As the disease progresses LTM (episodic) are increasingly impaired, it is common for people to experience significant change in personality and struggle to imagine themself in hypothetical situations (no imagined futures)

Autopsy’s helped us to understand that 3/4 of neurons in the medial temporal lobe and/or hippocampus are typically lost in extreme Alzheimer’s disease

Question 47

What are the 2 structures that cause Alzheimer’s

Answer 47

• Amyloid plaques- Hard clumps of protein that build up around the neuron impairing synapse and inhibiting communication between neurons
• Neurofibrillary tangle Are twisted fibers that build up within a neuron and inhabit the transport of essential substances throughout the neuron