UNIT 3 AOS 2 approaches to learning and memory Flashcards
What is learning?
acquiring knowledge, skills or behaviours through experience. Learning is relatively permanent.
learning can intentional or unintentional.
We can be active or passive learners
intentional learning
requires effort
unintentional learning
no effort
passive learning
classic conditioning
active learning
operant learning
Classical conditioning (CC)
a form of learning that occurs through repeated association of two different stimulus to produce a naturally occuring response, the leaner is passive
behaviourism
a psych approach that proposed learning occurs by interacting with the external environment
before conditioning
the first stage of CC, which the neutral stimulus has no association and does not produce any significant response
during conditioning
the second stage of CC, which the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditional stimulus, producing an unconditioned response
after conditioning
the third stage of classical conditioning during which the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response
Operant Conditioning
a three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour and consequences of a behaviours that determines the likelihood that it will reoccur
Antecedent
the stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour
behaviour
known as the operant response. The voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent
consequences
the outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will happen again
types of consequences
- Positive reinforcement
- Positive punishment
- Negative reinforcement
- Negative punishment
Positive reinforcement
the addition of a desirable stimulus
e.g) getting a gold star for doing your homework
Positive punishment
the addition of an undesirable stimulus
e.g) getting detention for not doing homework
Negative reinforcement
the removal of an undesirable stimulus
e.g) being let off doing chores at home for getting a good result
negative punishment
(also known as a repsonse cost)
- the removal of a desirable stimulus
e.g) paying money to a fine
observational learning
- socio-cognitive approach to learning that occurs when an individual sees another person’s actions and the consequences of those actions, this guides future behaviour
socio-cognitive approaches to learning
theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes
model
the perosn who is performing the behvaiour that is being observed
stages of observational learning
- attention
- retention
- reproduction
- motivation
- reinforcement
attention
involves the learner actively watching the model
retention
involves the learner storing mental representation of the behaviour
reproduction
learner has the mental and physical ability to perform the behaviour
motivation
is when the learner has the desire to initate the behaviour
reinforcement
is when the learner experiences a positive outcome after performing that behaviour, most likely to repeat in the future
types of motivation
- intrinsic: occurs from within the individual
e.g) desire to perform well on an exam - extrinsic: occurs from factors external to the individual.
e.g) desire to receive praise from a teacher
types of reinforcement
- Self-reinforcement: occurs when a behaviour is reinforced through factors internal to the individual such as feeling proud of yourself
- External reinforcement: when the behaviour is reinforced by factors external to the individual such as receiving an award
- Vicarious reinforcement: when a behaviour is being reinforced by OBSERVING the reinforcement of another individual who is performing the same behaviour. This can enhance the individual motivation and make them more likely to perform the behaviour again.
what is memory
memory is the active process of encoding, storing and retrieving information that has been previously encountered when required
Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory
INCOMING SENSORY INFO -> SENSORY MEMORY (echoic,iconic, register, if not attended to, it will be lost from sensory memory) -(attention)-> SHORT TERM MEMORY ( rehearse, if not rehearsed, it will be lost from STM) -(retrieval and encoding) -> LTM (storage)
Memory processes
Encoding - a process of converting information from our STM into a form that brains can store
Storage - a process of retaining information in our long-term memory for future use
Retrieval - the process of retrieving info that has been stored in LTM and bringing it into our conscious awareness in STM
Sensory memory function, duration, capacity
Function - receives sensory information from the environment and stores It
Capacity - unlimited
Duration - 0.2 - 4 seconds
Types of Sensory memory (Iconic, echoic) function, duration, capacity
iconic
- Function = stores visual sensory info
- Duration = 0.2 - 4 seconds
- Capacity = unlimited
Echoic
- Function = stores auditory sensory information
- Duration = 3-4 seconds
- Capacity = unlimited
STM function, duration, capacity
Function = receives info from sensory memory and transfers information to and from LTM. Consciously aware
Capacity = 5 - 9 items (7+_ 2)
Duration = 18 - 30 seconds, can be longer if maintained (repetition, maintenance, rehearsal) memory technique called chunking
LTM function, duration, capacity
Function = information storage for re-access and use at a later time
Capacity = unlimited
Duration = potentially permanent, some info may be lost or inaccessible over time
STM as working memory
STM enables us to maintain information in conscious awareness whilst we actively ‘work on’ and manipulate the information during tasks
Implicit memory
implicit
- memory without awareness
Procedural memory
- skills for doing things
Classically conditioned memory
- conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Explicit memory
Explicit (declarative)
- memory with awareness
Episodic memory
- personal experiences
Semantic memory
- facts + knowledge
Brain structures involved in explicit memory
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
- Neocortex
Hippocampus in explicit memory
- The hippocampus ENCODES declarative memories
- Neural degeneration in the hippocampus is a leading contributor in the development of Alzheimer’s disease
Amygdala
- The amygdala helps to form and retrieves explicit (declarative) memories (especially those that are emotionally driven )
- Adrenaline aids in the formation and strength of emotional memories. Also helps to recognize emotions in others
ADRENALINE -> AMYGDALA -> HIPPOCAMPUS
Neocortex
Responsible for attention, thought, perception - all which influence memory. Stores episodic and semantic memories once they are encoded and transferred from the hippocampus.
also heavily linked to processing and recognition of auditory stimuli.
CORTEX
STORES ALL MEMORY
Brain structures in implicit memory
- Basal Ganglia
- Cerebellum
Basal ganglia
- responsible for the encoding of motor (procedural memories - implicit)
- associated with habitat - forming, linking, and stimulus and response learning
- the basal ganglia makes dopamine in the formation of these memories
cerebellum
- responsible for the encoding (procedural memories - implicit)
- controls balance, co-ordination, movement and motor skills
habituation
Process of growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus. involves a decrease in responsiveness following repeated exposure to the stimulus
Studying the brain
- MRI
-fMRI
-PET
MRI
long ‘ xray’ safer but expensive. Scans the whole brain
fMRI
tracks oxygen levels in the brain, indicates which part of the brain is more active
PET
track blood flow in the brain
Neurodegenerative diseases
- dementia ( vascular, Alzheimer)
- Parkinson
- MND
- Huntington
Alzheimer’s Disease
results from a loss of neurons in the hippocampus and causes memory loss and personality change (episodic.
In the early stages of Alzheimer’s episodic memory is first lost but then as it progresses semantic memory is affected
What can be seen in a brain with Alzheimer’s
- Amyloid plaques + TAU proteins ( these are proteins and plaques which interfere with neurons health and ability to transmit messages)
- Neurofibrillary tangles - within the cell/neuron
- cortex shrinkage
- imbalance in acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) - not enough acetylcholine affects memories
Aphantasia
- rare condition where individuals are unable to see a visual; imagery: they cannot produce a visual; in their mind
- Aphantasia is a rare condition, while Alzheimer’s is the most common type of dementia
- has a less active visual cortex, as that is where imagining occurs
Aphantasia triggers
- Developed from birth
- Can be developed from a brain injury
- Heart conditions can trigger it
- psychotic disorders
- depressive episodes
aphantasia weakness
- Episodic memory
- Imagining
- Facial recongitioning
- Dreaming
correlation
- Higher IQ
- Autism
- Synaesthesia
Mnemonics
Devices and techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
types of Mnemonics
Written Culture
- Acronym
- Acrostics
- Method of loci
Oral cultrue
- Songlines
Memory is enhanced by
Rehearsal
- Maintenance
- Elaborative (better meaning)
Effort
- Energy, Attention, time, thought
Meaning + Understanding ( semantics)
Acronyms
A mnemonic device in which the first letter of each item to be recalled are placed together to create a word
e.g NASA, FOMO
Acrostics
A mnemonic device in which the first letters of an item creates a phrase, rhyme or poem to aid memory
e.g to remember Kingdoms, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
acrostics Kids Prefer Cheese Over Fried Green Spinach
Method of loci
A mnemonic that converts items into mental images associates them with specific locations to aid memory
E.g) remembering a list of items in a particular order
oral
songlines
