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Year 12 Psychology > Unit 3 AOS 2 > Flashcards

Unit 3 AOS 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define learning

A

relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

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2
Q

What sorts of learning are there (4)

A

intentional, unintentional, passive, active

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3
Q

Define memory

A

an active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information

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4
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a reflexive response by repeated association with a stimulus that automatically elicits the reflexive response.

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5
Q

Types of responses elicited in classical conditioning

A

reflexive/involuntary

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6
Q

Role of learner in classical conditioning

A

passive

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7
Q

Extinction (classical) definition

A

when a conditioned response no longer occurs because the conditioned stimulus is presented several times without the unconditioned stimulus.

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8
Q

Spontaneous recovery definition

A

the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

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9
Q

Stimulus generalisation definition

A

when a response is elicited to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus.

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10
Q

Stimulus discrimination definition

A

when an individual learns to respond to the conditioned stimulus only (not to other similar stimuli)

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11
Q

Ethical principles that little Albert breached

A

informed consent, voluntary participation, no lasting physical or psychological harm, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, deception, debriefing,

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12
Q

Define operant conditioning

A

a learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour occurring is determined by the consequence of that behaviour.

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13
Q

Define operant

A

any behaviour that generates consequences

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14
Q

Define antecedent (operant conditioning)

A

a stimulus that is presented before a behaviour that results in a behaviour being elicited

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15
Q

Define behaviour (operant conditioning)

A

the voluntary behaviour by the individual that occurs due to the antecedent stimulus

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16
Q

Define consequence (operant conditioning)

A

positive or negative outcome of behaviour

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17
Q

Types of consequences in operant conditioning

A

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, response cost (negative punishment)

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18
Q

Nature of response in operant conditioning

A

voluntary

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19
Q

Role of learner in operant conditioning

A

active

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20
Q

Define reinforcement

A

strengthening of a response or behaviour

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21
Q

Two types of reinforcement

A

positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement

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22
Q

Define positive reinforcement

A

the addition of a pleasant or satisfying stimulus in order to strengthen a desired response or behaviour.

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23
Q

Example of positive reinforcement

A

receiving good grade after doing homework

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24
Q

Define negative reinforcement

A

the removal or prevention of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in order to strengthen a desired response or behaviour.

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25
Q

Examples of negative reinforcement

A

taking medicine to remove headache

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26
Q

Define punishment

A

weakening of a response or behaviour

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27
Q

Two types of punishment

A

positive punishment, response cost (negative punishment)

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28
Q

Define positive punishment

A

the addition of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in order to weaken an undesired response or behaviour.

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29
Q

Example of positive punishment

A

punching someone to make them stop annoying you?

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30
Q

Define response cost

A

the removal of a pleasant or desirable stimulus in order to weaken or decrease an undesired response or behaviour.

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31
Q

Examples of response cost

A

going to jail, receiving a fine, being grounded, having phone confiscated

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32
Q

Negative effects of the use of punishment

A

risk of causing serious harm, inducing fear or hostility, failure to learn the correct response in a particular situation

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33
Q

Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement

A

reinforcer must be presented after the response, reinforcer should be presented as close in time as possible to the desired response, reinforcer must have a pleasing or satisfying consequence.

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34
Q

Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment

A

punishment should be presented as close in time as possible to the desired response, punishment must be consistent in order to prevent the response/behaviour

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35
Q

Define acquisition (operant)

A

the establishment of a response through reinforcement

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36
Q

Define extinction (operant)

A

the gradual decrease in strength or rate of a learned response following a consistent non-reinforcement of the response

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37
Q

Define stimulus generalisation (operant)

A

eliciting the conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the antecedent

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38
Q

Define stimulus discrimination (operant)

A

eliciting the conditioned response only in the presence of a specific antecedent and not in the presence of similar stimuli

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39
Q

Define observational learning

A

learning process in which the learner uses observation of another individual’s (model) actions and their consequences to guide their future actions.

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40
Q

What is observational learning also known as

A

social learning theory, vicarious conditioning

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41
Q

Define vicarious

A

experienced or felt by watching, hearing about, or reading about someone else rather than by doing.

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42
Q

Basis of observational learning

A

that the learner does not have to be the one directly receiving punishment/rewards in order to be conditioned as they observe the consequences happening to someone else and therefore experience them vicariously

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43
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement

A

it increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way after watching a model’s behaviour be reinforced.

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44
Q

What is vicarious punishment

A

the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished

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45
Q

Name of researcher on observation learning

A

Albert Bandura

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46
Q

Name the five elements of observational learning

A

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement

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47
Q

Define attention (observational learning)

A

learner actively watches/observes the model

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48
Q

Characteristics of models that make us more likely to observe/imitate them in observational learning

A

if they are perceived to have a high status, there are perceived similarities between the model and the observer, the model in known or familiar to the observer, the model’s behaviour is visible and stands out to the observer

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49
Q

Define retention in social learning

A

the ability to remember and form a mental representation of the model’s behaviour

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50
Q

What must the learner have in order for retention to be successful

A

ability to remember

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51
Q

Define reproduction in social learning

A

the learner has the mental and physical ability to perform the behaviour

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52
Q

What must the learner have in order for reproduction to be successful

A

capability to imitate behaviour i.e. cognitive and motor skills

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53
Q

Define motivation in social learning

A

the learner must want to or have a desire to imitate the behaviour

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54
Q

Define reinforcement in social learning

A

a positive outcome means the learner is more likely to repeat the behaviour

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55
Q

Types of reinforcement for observational learning

A

vicarious reinforcement, external reinforcement, internal reinforcement

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56
Q

Important thing to remember about memory

A

say we have ‘memory systems’ rather than we have ‘a memory’

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57
Q

What are the three processes involved in memory

A

encoding, storage, retrieval

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58
Q

Define encoding

A

the process of converting information into a usable form that can be properly stored and represented in the memory system. (converting information into electro-chemical codes [memory traces] )

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59
Q

Define storage

A

the retention of information over time.

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60
Q

Define retrieval

A

the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Getting information out of storage relies on relevant cues.

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61
Q

Name of memory model

A

Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-store model of memory

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62
Q

What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

A

a model that describes three distinct stores of memory (sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory) that operate simultaneously and interact with each other.

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63
Q

What are the three stores of memory

A

sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory

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64
Q

Define sensory memory

A

memory store that stores that receives the information about our senses

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65
Q

Duration of sensory memory

A

relatively short

66
Q

Capacity of sensory memory

A

unlimited

67
Q

Types of sensory memory

A

echoic and iconic

68
Q

What is iconic memory

A

sensory register for visual information

69
Q

What is the duration of iconic memory

A

0.2-0.4 seconds

70
Q

What is echoic memory

A

sensory register for auditory information

71
Q

What is the duration of echoic memory

A

3-4 seconds

72
Q

Why is duration of echoic memory longer than iconic

A

in order to comprehend many sounds particularly those in language

73
Q

What is short term memory also known as

A

working memory

74
Q

Define short term memory

A

holds all the information you are consciously thinking about at any moment of time

75
Q

How does information enter short term memory

A

enter from sensory memory or is retrieved from long term memory

76
Q

Is information an exact replica in STM

A

no, it is an encoding

77
Q

What is the capacity of short term memory

A

7 +/- 2 items

78
Q

What is the duration of short term memory

A

12 to 30 seconds

79
Q

What happens at approx. 18 seconds in short term memory

A

disappears almost entirely unless renewed in some way

80
Q

What is an experiment showing STM duration

A

Margaret and Lloyd peterson (backwards exponential shape of graph)

81
Q

Define chunking

A

grouping separate items of information to form a larger information unit (chunk) that can be remembered as a single unit.

82
Q

What is chunking used for

A

to increase the capacity of STM

83
Q

How to increase duration of STM

A

rehearsal

84
Q

Define maintenance rehearsal

A

the simple repetition of information over and over again so that it can be retained in short-term memory

85
Q

What happens when you stop maintenance rehearsal

A

memory is lost

86
Q

Define elaborative rehearsal

A

involves focusing on the meaning of information and linking this meaning with information already in your long-term memory or other information in your short term memory

87
Q

Define long term memory

A

the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time

88
Q

What is the duration of long term memory

A

relatively permanent

89
Q

What is the capacity of long term memory

A

unlimited

90
Q

What are the types of long term memory

A

procedural (implicit), declarative (explicit) - which is made up of semantic and episodic memory

91
Q

Thing to remember about the types of long term memory

A

not Atkinson-Shiffrin

92
Q

Define procedural memory (implicit)

A

the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously

93
Q

Define declarative (explicit) memory

A

memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and usually communicated

94
Q

What are the two types of declarative memory

A

semantic, episodic

95
Q

Define episodic memory

A

the declarative memory system that stores autobiographical events and life experiences

96
Q

Define semantic memory

A

the declarative memory system that stores factual knowledge about the world

97
Q

Why does long term memory need to be organised

A

to assist with the storage and retrieval of information

98
Q

What are the four measures of retention

A

recall, recognition, relearning, reconstruction

99
Q

What is the most sensitive measure of retention

A

relearning

100
Q

What is the least sensitive measure of retention

A

recall

101
Q

Define recall

A

retrieving information stored in long term memory using few or no cues for assistance

102
Q

What are the types of recall

A

free recall, serial recall, cued recall

103
Q

Define free recall

A

reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory in no particular order using no cues

104
Q

Define serial recall

A

reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory in a specific order or sequence with no cues

105
Q

Define cued recall

A

reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory through the use of specific prompts (cues).

106
Q

Define recognition

A

identifying the correct information from a list of possible alternatives

107
Q

Define relearning

A

learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long term memory

108
Q

What is methods of savings

A

when you measure the amount of information retained in long term memory from the previous learning

109
Q

Define savings score

A

the percentage of information retained from original learning

110
Q

Saving’s score formula

A

T1-T2/T1 *100

111
Q

Define reconstruction

A

remembering past events and features of past events you have stored in LTM and putting them together during memory recall

112
Q

Define forgetting

A

the inability to retrieve previously stored information

113
Q

Are you more likely to forget procedural or declarative memories

A

declarative

114
Q

Why are context and state dependent cues effective

A

the encoding specificity principle

115
Q

Define encoding specificity principle

A

the more closely the retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that the information will be recalled.

116
Q

Define context dependent cues

A

the place/setting in which a memory acts as a retrieval cue for the desired information

117
Q

Define state dependent cues

A

the physiological or psychological condition in which a memory was made acts as a retrieval cue for the desired information.

118
Q

What memories are most likely to be remembered

A

emotional memories, interconnected, frequently used, first and last words

119
Q

Serial position effect

A

how well words are remembered depends on where they are located on a list

120
Q

Define primacy effect

A

superior recall of items at the beginning of the list as they have the best chance to encode them into LTM

121
Q

Define recency effect

A

superior recall of items at the end of a list due to being in STM

122
Q

Hippocampus role in memory

A

formation of memory - encoding + transferring, declarative memories

123
Q

Amygdala role in memory

A

encoding and storage of memories that have a significant emotional component

124
Q

Removal of hippocampus effects

A

can remember procedural memories but not being taught them

125
Q

Removal of amygdala effects

A

can’t modulate appropriate emotional responses

126
Q

Cerebral cortex roles

A

processing ST memories, linking to other memories

127
Q

Consolidation theory

A

30 minutes, memory trace formed, can’t be disrupted

128
Q

Who identified identity trace

A

Kandel

129
Q

Define neural pathways

A

connections between neurons where information is transmitted.

130
Q

Are neural pathways fixed

A

no

131
Q

What happens in learning to neurons

A

neurons form new connections with each other or existing connections are strengthened.

132
Q

What neurotransmitters are involved in learning

A

glutamate, dopamine

133
Q

What physical changes arise as a result of learning

A

dendritic spines of post-synaptic neuron develop more receptor sites, more sprouts (neurotransmitters increased), more synaptic connections are formed

134
Q

What three changes occur during strengthening of neural pathways

A

change in structure, function and synapse

135
Q

Change in function in strengthening of neural pathways

A

an increase in the amount of the neurotransmitter produced and released by the neurons.

136
Q

Change in structure in strengthening of neural pathways

A

‘branches’ of axons and dendrites increase in number as they become ‘bushier’ through the growth of smaller ‘offshoots’ (dendritic spines) thereby strengthening the connections between the neurons.

137
Q

Change in synapse in strengthening of neural pathways

A

new synaptic connections form, further strengthening the connections between the neurons.

138
Q

Define synaptogenesis

A

the process by which synapses are formed between neurons

139
Q

Define neural plasticity

A

the brain’s ability to reorganise neural pathways throughout the lifespan as a result of experience

140
Q

Two types of neural plasticity

A

adaptive plasticity, developmental plasticity

141
Q

Five stages of neuronal development

A

proliferation, migration, circuit formation, circuit pruning, myelination

142
Q

Define adaptive plasticity

A

changes occurring in the brain’s neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for the lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage.

143
Q

When does adaptive plasticity occur

A

any time in the lifespan

144
Q

Why do children heal better

A

more quick and successful in the earlier years, especially during infancy and early childhood

145
Q

What does LTP stand for

A

long term potentiation

146
Q

Define long-term potentiation

A

long-term potentiation is the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections of neurons through high frequency stimulation of the synaptic pathway, resulting in the enhanced functioning of neurons

147
Q

What LTP is useful for

A

decreases the likelihood of forgetting, allows us to strengthen important/wanted/useful memories.

148
Q

What does LTD stand for

A

long term depression

149
Q

Define long term depression

A

is the weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that results from a lack of stimulation or prolonged low level stimulation of a neural pathway

150
Q

What does LTD do

A

less efficient synaptic transmission, loss or weakening of communication between neurons, post-synaptic neuron becomes less responsive to the neurotransmitters, increases likelihood of forgetting, allows us to prune or eliminate useless/unimportant memories

151
Q

Why do we need LTD

A

allows us to adjust/edit/correct our thinking if problem solving or our movements, provides basis for blocking or eliminating inappropriate or unwanted feelings or behaviours

152
Q

Define neurotransmitters

A

chemicals that are released by a neuron in order to send a message to another neuron

153
Q

Define neurohormones

A

chemicals that are synthesised within a neuron and released into the bloodstream and act on distant sites.

154
Q

Define hormones

A

chemicals that are produced within a gland and are released into the bloodstream and act on distant sites.

155
Q

Differences between neurotransmitters and neurohormones

A

where acts on, form of message, neurotransmitters travel shorter distances, effect of neurotransmitters is quicker

156
Q

Role of glutamate

A

excitatory neurotransmitter, high speed neural transmission and is necessary for memory and learning.

157
Q

Glutamate’s role in LTP

A

during LTP, there is an increase in the amount of glutamate produced and released by the pre-synaptic neuron. It binds neurons together through neural plasticity (therefore allows memories to form), and the connections become more efficient. Without glutamate, it would be as if every experience was new to us.

158
Q

Relationships between glutamate and LTD

A

decreased production and decreased release of glutamate is associated with LTD

159
Q

What is a receptor site for glutamate

A

NMDA

160
Q

How does adrenaline enhance memory

A

important for encoding process of emotion memories

Year 12 Psychology (5 decks)

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