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Year 12 Psychology > Unit 3 AOS 1 > Flashcards

Unit 3 AOS 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuron definition

A

individual nerve cell that receives, transmits and processes information

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2
Q

SAME acronym

A

sensory, afferent, motor, efferent

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3
Q

Human nervous system definition

A

a communication subsystem that consists of networks of neurons that connects the brain, spinal cord, and different parts of the body to each other via electrochemical signals

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4
Q

What are the two main divisions of the human nervous system

A

peripheral nervous system, central nervous system

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5
Q

Central nervous system definition

A

a major division of the nervous system consisting of all the nerves in the brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

What is the CNS made up of

A

the brain and the spinal cord

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7
Q

What does the brain do (3 things)

A

1) regulates and guides all other parts of the nervous system. 2) Receives information via senses, processes it and co-ordinates appropriate response (via spinal cord). 3) It is responsible for higher order functions (planning, thinking, learning)

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8
Q

What is the spinal cord

A

a column of nerve fibres that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back.

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9
Q

What are the 2 functions of the spinal cord

A

1) to receive sensory information from the PNS and transmit it to the brain via afferent tracts, 2) and to receive motor information from the brain and transmit it to the PNS via efferent tracts

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10
Q

Where do afferent tracts begin

A

the spinal cord

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11
Q

Peripheral nervous system definition

A

network of neurons located outside the CNS, comprising of muscles, organs and glands

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12
Q

Functions of the PNS

A

transmit sensory information to CNS, transmit motor messages from CNS - i.e. receive and respond to sensory information

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13
Q

What are the two main divisions of the PNS

A

autonomic nervous system, somatic nervous system

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14
Q

Somatic nervous system definition

A

the division of the PNS that transmits sensory info received from sensory receptor cells inwards towards the CNS and motor messages from the CNS to the body’s skeletal voluntary muscles

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15
Q

The somatic nervous system is also known as

A

the skeletal nervous system

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16
Q

The 2 functions of the somatic nervous system

A

1) transmits information from receptor sites on sense organs to the CNS (via afferent pathways), 2) Carries information from the CNS to the muscles that control movement (via efferent pathways)

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17
Q

Autonomic nervous system definition

A

transmits motor messages from the brain to the body’s internal organs, muscles and glands which results in involuntary activity of these, and transmits messages to brain about these

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18
Q

Functions of the autonomic nervous system

A

1) carries neural messages between CNS and the internal visceral muscles, organs and glands, 2) and it regulates the internal functions of these organs/glands/muscles

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19
Q

Biofeedback definition

A

a process by which a person receives information about their autonomic physiological activity (instruments) in order to learn how to control these.

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20
Q

What are the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system

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21
Q

Sympathetic nervous system definition

A

branch of the ANS that alters the activity level of internal muscles, organs and glands to physically prepare our body for increased activity during times of high emotional or physical arousal e.g. stress.

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22
Q

Function of the sympathetic nervous system

A

activates internal muscles, organs and glands to prepare body for vigorous activity, or to deal with a stressful situation

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23
Q

Fight-flight-freeze response

A

a response triggered by the sympathetic nervous system that physiologically prepares the body during a stressful situation in order to optimise survival and involves either confronting the stressor (fight), running away (flight) or remaining stationary (freeze).

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24
Q

Fight-flight-freeze response involves what systems

A

nervous (autonomic and sympathetic) and endocrine

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25
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system definition

A

branch of ANS that maintains energy levels appropriate for normal bodily functioning and physically calms us after high arousal by reversing the changes in bodily functioning caused by the domination of the sympathetic nervous system

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26
Q

The 3 functions of the parasympathetic nervous system

A

1) Counterbalances sympathetic nervous system responses (returns body back to normal functioning/state of calm) through physically calming us after high arousal by reversing the changes in bodily functioning caused by the domination of the sympathetic nervous system, 2) and it maintains the body’s natural state of equilibrium (homeostasis). 3) This also allows resources to be saved for when needed and restoring depleted resources.

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27
Q

What are conscious responses

A

neural communication that involves conscious awareness and any somatic nervous system functions

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28
Q

What are unconscious responses

A

Neural communication involving unconscious awareness involves any autonomic nervous system functions such as breathing, digestion, blood pressure

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29
Q

What is a reflex action

A

simple automatic response that is hardwired into our nervous system e.g. blinking when dust goes into eyes

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30
Q

Spinal reflex definition

A

An automatic response that is initiated by interneurons in the spinal cord instead of the brain.

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31
Q

What is an interneuron

A

a specialised neuron that links sensory and motor neurons; located in the CNS

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32
Q

What happens in a spinal reflex

A

sensory neurons receive an intense sensation, this information travels to the spinal cord to interneurons, interneurons send motor information to withdraw,

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33
Q

When does a spinal reflex reaction occur

A

intense sensation, danger/threat/critical time

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34
Q

The spinal reflex is a ___ response

A

survival response

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35
Q

Why does the message bypass the brain initially

A

to get a quicker response, therefore less negative impact and more chance of survival

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36
Q

Why does the message then go to the brain after acted

A

to learn

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37
Q

What is pain

A

an unpleasant sensory or emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

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38
Q

Example of spinal reflex

A

burn, sting

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39
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

reflex response that involves one synapse and the interaction between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron

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40
Q

Example of monosynaptic reflex

A

patellar ‘knee jerk’ reflex

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41
Q

Monosynaptic reflexes do not involve…

A

interneurons

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42
Q

Polysynaptic reflexes definition

A

a reflex response that involves the activation of more than one synapse: it includes an interneuron making a connection between a sensory and a motor neuron

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43
Q

Example of polysynaptic reflex

A

withdrawal reflex, spinal reflex

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44
Q

Dendrite (function/structure)

A

neuron fibre that extends from the soma that receives incoming neural information from other neurons

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45
Q

Define soma

A

the main cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus that is responsible for integrating information (receive from dendrites, pass on to axon)

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46
Q

Define axon

A

pathway down which neural message travels

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47
Q

Define myelin sheath

A

a fatty white tissue that coats the axons of some neurons - role is to protect the axon and assist with speed of transmission of neural message

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48
Q

Define axon terminals

A

Exit pathways for neural message to make their way to next neuron

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49
Q

Define terminal buttons

A

Releases neurotransmitters to a receiving neuron for communication purposes

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50
Q

Define glial cells

A

assist in structure of neurons/nutrition

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51
Q

Remember about neural transmission

A

neurons don’t move, message does

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52
Q

Neural transmission involves ____ energy

A

electrochemical energy

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53
Q

Resting potential is

A

positive on outside, negative on inside

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54
Q

Action potential is positive/negative outside/inside…

A

negative outside, positive on inside

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55
Q

Resting potential definition

A

the typical internal environment (negatively charged) of a neuron in comparison to the external environment (positively charged)

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56
Q

All or nothing means

A

no levels of action potential only there is or isn’t

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57
Q

What comes first polarisation/depolarisation/repolarisation

A

polarisation, then depolarisation then repolarisation

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58
Q

Define receptor sites (neuron)

A

areas on the cell membrane of the dendrites of post-synaptic neuron that are sensitive to specific neurotransmitters

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59
Q

Neurotransmitters definition

A

a chemical messenger synthesised within a pre-synaptic neuron and transmitted across a synapse.

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60
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitters definition

A

neurotransmitters that cause the post-synaptic neuron to fire/stimulate post-synaptic neuron

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61
Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitters definition

A

neurotransmitters that prevent the post-synaptic neuron from firing.

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62
Q

Glutamate is responsible for

A

high speed neural transmission and is necessary for memory and learning.

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63
Q

What is one receptor site for glutamate

A

NMDA

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64
Q

What does too much glutamate do

A

too much glutamate has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as motor neuron disease.

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65
Q

Is glutamate excitatory or inhibitory

A

excitatory

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66
Q

What does GABA stand for

A

gamma amino butyric acid

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67
Q

What does GABA do

A

calm and slow neural transmission, decrease anxiety

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68
Q

What are the receptor sites for GABA

A

GABAa, GABAb, GABAc

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69
Q

What is low levels of GABA linked to (2)

A

epilepsy (less inhibition) and anxiety

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70
Q

Is GABA excitatory or inhibitory

A

inhibitory

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71
Q

Other neurotransmitters (other than GABA and glutamate)

A

acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin

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72
Q

What is acetylcholine responsible for and what happens without it

A

memory and without it Alzheimer’s

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73
Q

What is epinephrine responsible for

A

arousal

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74
Q

What is another name for epinephrine

A

adrenaline

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75
Q

What is dopamine responsible for and what happens without it

A

motivation, voluntary movement, without it Parkinson’s disease/depression

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76
Q

What is serotonin responsible for and what happens without it

A

mood, without it Schizophrenia

77
Q

What causes neurotransmitter interruption

A

imbalance or deficiency in a particular type of neurotransmitter

78
Q

What causes imbalances/deficiencies (4)

A

drugs, diet/nutrition, stress, genetics

79
Q

What are the effects of neurotransmitter interruptions

A

the functioning of the nervous system is affected, leading to chronic changes such as neurodegenerative diseases, mental health disorders, addiction, immobility, weight loss/gain

80
Q

Define neurodegenerative diseases

A

diseases that gradually and progressively kill nerve cellsThis causes permanent or long-lasting loss of abilities such as balance, movement, talking, breathing, heart function and cognition.

81
Q

Causes of neurodegenerative diseases

A

genetics, toxins, chemicals, tumors, stress, viruses, stroke, diet/nutrition,..

82
Q

Parkinson’s disease definition

A

is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by chronic progressive changes in the brain due to the malfunction and deterioration to neurons, which leads to impairment in movement

83
Q

What are the primary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

A

rigidity, stooped posture, tremors of the head, head bent forwards, loss of postural reflexes, muscle stiffness, shuffling, bone demineralisation, reduced coordination and balance, drooling, tremors of the head

84
Q

What are the secondary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

A

social isolation, anxiety/depression, stooped posture, speech problems, pain in the limbs, constipation, weight loss

85
Q

Where is dopamine found in the brain

A

substantia Nigra

86
Q

What does damage to dopamine producing neurons mean

A

less dopamine is generated, which causes movement problems

87
Q

Treatments for low dopamine (2)

A

levodopa and dopamine agonists, surgery

88
Q

What is levodopa

A

is an amino acid that the neurons in the brain convert to dopamine to raise levels and reduce symptoms of PD - This can cause side effects such as nausea, and if used long term, can cause muscle spasms.

89
Q

What are dopamine agonists

A

are another type of drug used to treat PD. They stimulate the dopamine receptors of the brain and imitate the effects of dopamine. They will ease symptoms but will not stop the progression of the disease. Side effects include hallucinations, sleep disturbances and impulse control disorders

90
Q

Define Alzheimer’s disease and what neurotransmitter is low in patients with Alzheimer’s

A

is an irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease which causes severe cognitive and behavioural decline. Low levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine which play a vital role in memory are found in these patients.

91
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

is a genetic disease that leads to jerky movements but also dementia and depression. It causes degeneration of neurons that contain the neurotransmitter GABA - an inhibitory neurotransmitter that stops anxiety (not enough GABA makes you anxious)

92
Q

Motor neuron disease

A

is characterised by progressive degeneration of motor neurons, leading to weakening of muscles and paralysis. Lack of regulation of the neurotransmitter glutamate causes toxicity to motor neurons.

93
Q

Stress definition

A

a state of physiological tension produced by internal or external forces which is perceived as exceeding a person’s resources or ability to cope.

94
Q

Stressor definition

A

an internal or external (person, situation, or event) source of tension.

95
Q

Examples of physical stressors

A

sleep deprivation, hunger, hot/cold, thirst, pain/illness

96
Q

Stress response definition

A

physiological and psychological changes experienced when confronted by a stressor.

97
Q

Chronic stress definition

A

a state of prolonged physiological arousal in response to a persistent stressor that negatively affects health and wellbeing.

98
Q

Acute stress definition

A

a state of brief but intense physiological arousal in response to an immediate perceived stressor that normally has no negative effects on health and wellbeing.

99
Q

Eustress definition

A

positive psychological response to a perceived stressor.

100
Q

What feelings does eustress often result in

A

excitement, enthusiasm, alertness

101
Q

Distress definition

A

a negative psychological response to a perceived stressor.

102
Q

What are the two types of stress

A

eustress, distress

103
Q

What feelings does distress often lead to

A

anger, anxiety, irritability, tension, nervousness.

104
Q

What causes stress (4)

A

daily pressures, life events, acculturation (acculturative stress), catastrophes that disrupt whole communities.

105
Q

Daily pressures definition

A

frequently experienced stressors consisting of relatively minor events that require adjustments in behaviour.

106
Q

Example of a daily pressure

A

missing the bus

107
Q

Important thing to remember about daily pressures

A

everyone responds to these differently

108
Q

Life events definition

A

stressors that consist of significant but relatively rare events that require substantial adjustments

109
Q

Examples of life events

A

death of a spouse, change in residence

110
Q

Name of scale that measures life events stress

A

Holmes and Rahe Life Stress Inventory

111
Q

Acculturation definition

A

a process that involves a person changing their behaviour to adopt the cultural traits or social patterns of the dominant culture they moved to.

112
Q

Acculturative stress definition

A

stress caused by attempting to psychologically and socially adapt to the demands and values of a foreign culture

113
Q

Effects of low stress and high stress acculturation

A

low = integration, assimilation, then separation, marginalisation = high

114
Q

Examples of acculturative stress

A

immigrating to a new country, moving schools

115
Q

Catastrophes that disrupt entire communities definition

A

a sudden, unpredictable, uncontrollable, intense event that causes large scale damage and suffering for a group.

116
Q

Examples of catastrophes

A

severe weather conditions, war, political uprising, natural disasters

117
Q

Catastrophes can be both….

A

acute and chronic

118
Q

What are acute catastrophes + e.g.

A

very severe but able to recover, e.g. event without long lasting effects

119
Q

What are chronic catastrophes + e.g.

A

sustained or ongoing hardship as a result of the catastrophe e.g. loose house in flood

120
Q

Psychological responses can’t always be…

A

observed

121
Q

How are psychological responses inferred/determined

A

behaviour, self-reports

122
Q

Examples of physiological responses to stress

A

skin rashes, headaches, colds/flue, heart palpitations, heart attack, stomach ulcers.

123
Q

Psychosomatic illness definition

A

physiological symptoms that arise as a result of psychological stressors or factors - stress makes you more susceptible to illness

124
Q

The relationship between stress and illness

A

it doesn’t cause illness, but makes you more susceptible

125
Q

Yerkes-Donson curve

A

performance increases with arousal but only to a certain point, low arousal = low performance, high arousal = low performance, medium arousal = optimum performance

126
Q

Applied Yerkes-Donson practice exams question

A

same location reduces arousal, medium arousal, optimum performance

127
Q

What is the HPA axis

A

the physiological process involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal glands, in which stress hormones (adrenaline, noradrenalin and cortisol) are released during times of stress (fight-flight-freeze response).

128
Q

HPA process explained

A

1) when a stressor is identified, the hypothalamus is activated 2) the hypothalamus then activates the pituitary gland which released a hormone (ACTH), 3) the ACTH reaches the adrenal glands which then release adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol into the bloodstream.

129
Q

Purpose of releasing adrenaline

A

adrenaline boosts the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and therefore increases heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, which means that there is more oxygen to help muscles meet energy needs for fight-flight-freeze response

130
Q

What prompts the release of cortisol

A

adrenaline

131
Q

What is the purpose of cortisol release

A

it allows the body to cope with stress by maintaining its health and wellbeing during times of threat.

132
Q

Why is prolonged stress harmful in terms of cortisol (2)

A

1) cortisol stays at high levels meaning the immune system becomes less effective and individual susceptible to illness and can also lead to over-eating of unhealthy foods and damage to blood vessels. 2) cortisol can also become depleted and this means that its function of maintaining the body’s health and wellbeing is lost so body is susceptible to illness

133
Q

Why is prolonged stress harmful (other) 3 reasons

A

can cause dizziness/rashes/heart palpitations/fatigue, diversion of blood away from digestive organs can produce indigestion and ulcers, can lead to persistent elevated heart rate and could result in heart disease/attack

134
Q

What does GAS stand for

A

(Selye’s) General Adaptation Syndrome

135
Q

Who discovered GAS

A

Hans Selye

136
Q

GAS was the first…

A

model to explain stress from a biological perspective

137
Q

How was GAS discovered

A

Selye experimented on rats by pulling on their tails to cause stress

138
Q

What is GAS

A

the body’s typical response pattern in terms of resistance to stress over time, comprising of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance stage and exhaustion.

139
Q

What are the 3 stages of GAS

A

Alarm reaction (shock, counter shock), Resistance stage, and exhaustion stage

140
Q

Alarm reaction stage

A

includes shock and counter shock - resistance drops below normal then above

141
Q

Shock

A

resistance levels fall below normal, body acts as though injured, body temp/blood pressure drop, muscles temporarily lose tone,

142
Q

Counter-shock

A

activation of sympathetic nervous system, increase body’s resistance, flood of hormones, fight-flight-freeze response,

143
Q

Resistance stage

A

if threat remains individual appears as though all is normal/okay, cortisol released, immunity starts to drop (additional stressors could cause illness)

144
Q

Exhaustion stage

A

body depleted, serious illness

145
Q

Strengths of GAS

A

predictable and measurable, applies to different types of stress.

146
Q

Limitations of GAS

A

developed based on research on animals rather than humans (difficult to generalise), does not account for individual differences between people or take into account psychological factors

147
Q

3 aspects of psychological responses to stress

A

cognitive, emotional, behavioural

148
Q

Behavioural includes

A

insomnia, alcohol/drugs, aggressive behaviour, less eating

149
Q

What is the psychological model of response to stress

A

Lazarus and Folkman’s Translactional Model of Stress and Coping

150
Q

What does Lazarus and Folkman’s model state

A

that stress involves a transaction between the environment and the person’s interpretation of the stressor.

151
Q

What is stress the result of Lazarus and Folkman

A

an interaction between an individual’s interpretation of the environment and the environment itself/

152
Q

When is a stress response experienced in Lazarus and Folkman

A

when there is an imbalance between a person’s appraisal and their estimation of their ability to cope

153
Q

What is Lazarus and Folkman’s model made up of

A

primary appraisal, secondary appraisal (reappraisal that may occur in secondary appraisal)

154
Q

What does individual asses in primary appraisal of Lazarus and Folkman

A

is there a stressor

155
Q

What is the primary appraisal

A

is it positive/benign or stressful, and if it is stressful, is it a challenge or a threat and if it is a threat is there a threat of harm/loss

156
Q

What is a threat in Lazarus and Folkman

A

is there a threat of harm/loss - may lead to distress

157
Q

What is a challenge in Lazarus and Folkman

A

is there potential for growth from the situation - may lead to eustress

158
Q

What does an individual asses in secondary appraisal of Lazarus and Folkman

A

coping options and resources for dealing with the stressor, internal and external sources for coping results in either distress or eustress

159
Q

Problem focused coping

A

directly targets the stressor and when individual feels they have control over the situation

160
Q

Emotional focused coping

A

manage emotional distress caused by stressor and changing unpleasant emotions associated with it

161
Q

Examples of emotional focused coping

A

crying into pillow, seeking emotional support, defence mechanisms, minimising (it’s not that bad), distracting

162
Q

What is reappraisal (Lazarus and Folkman)

A

reconsidering whether primary appraisal was accurate - may change due to consideration of coping

163
Q

Emotional forecasting in first stage

A

person attempts to predict potential emotional outscome of situation

164
Q

Secondary stage emotional forecasting

A

person attempts to predict potential emotional outcome of the coping mechanism chosen

165
Q

Strengths of Lazarus and Folkman’s model (5)

A

takes into account both psychological and emotional aspects when determining how people cope with stressors, explains why different individuals respond in different ways to the same types of stressors and explains why stressors and circumstances can change over time, proposes different methods for managing psychological responses to stressors and has enhanced understanding of the importance of stress-management strategies and programs, used human subjects in research/development of model

166
Q

Limitations of Lazarus and Folkman’s model (2)

A

focuses on psychological factors and little attention to the role physiological factors play in the stress response, lack of empirical evidence to support it as it relies on self reports (subjective data)

167
Q

Coping definition

A

a process involving constantly changing thoughts and behaviours so we can manage the demands of stressors we appraise as exceeding our resources.

168
Q

Define coping skills

A

learnt behaviours or techniques that help us solve problems or meet the demands of a stressor.

169
Q

Define coping strategy

A

the behavioural and psychological responses a person makes to a stressor that are intended to manage the stressor and reduce the physical and psychological stress related to it.

170
Q

Define contextual factors

A

the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event and influence whether or not we perceive a stimulus as a stressor and the intensity of the stress experienced.

171
Q

Define context specific effectiveness

A

when there is a good match between the stressor and the coping strategy used.

172
Q

What can help determine how someone will cope with high stress situations

A

stress and coping research and suitability studies, which are most effective when the context that will be experiences can be replicated then individual differences can be predicted

173
Q

Define coping flexibility

A

the ability of an individual to replace an ineffective coping strategy with a different and more effective coping strategy based on the demands of the situation

174
Q

People with higher coping flexibility have…

A

more positive outcomes, low incidence of mental illness

175
Q

Coping strategies include

A

approach strategies, avoidance strategies, physical exercise, meditation, social support,

176
Q

Define approach strategies

A

practical stress management strategies that consist of behavioural or psychological responses designed to change (remove or diminish) the nature of the stressor or how one thinks about it.

177
Q

Approach strategies can include…

A

problem-focused strategies that directly target the stressor and aim to reduce it, and emotion-focused strategies which are aimed at managing the emotional distress caused by the stressor and changing the unpleasant emotions associated with it

178
Q

Physical benefits of exercise (3.5)

A

it eliminates stress hormones (cortisol) and strengthens the immune system, relaxes tense muscles to reduce aches and pains, releases serotonin and beta-endorphins,

179
Q

Psychological benefits of exercise (5)

A

reduces mental fatigue, improves alertness and concentration, reduces stress related anxiety, promotes positive mood, may increase social interaction if done with others

180
Q

Mediation strategies include

A

relaxation and mindfulness

181
Q

Why meditation is beneficial

A

help you move your thinking and see things from another perspective or help you to gain perspective on what’s important and what’s not

182
Q

Benefits of social support (6)

A

help with coping flexibility, resources to help you think in another mindset and improve your understanding of the situation, provide material support, ideas with how to cope and helps to individual to feel cared for and valued.

183
Q

Define avoidance strategies

A

stress management strategies that involve choosing your response to a stressor based on trying to either cognitively or behaviourally avoid or escape painful or threatening thoughts, feelings, memories or sensations associated with the stressor.

184
Q

Avoidance strategies include

A

drugs and alcohol

185
Q

Why are drugs and alcohol avoidance strategies

A

don’t think about stressors in another state but can snowball to more effects as it doesn’t eradicate cortisol/adrenaline some can actually stimulate it, which leads to a worse situation.

186
Q

Remember physiological response to stress is… and psychological is…

A

involuntary, voluntary/conscious

187
Q

Avoidance strategies are used when… and approach when… (in terms of how much control individual feels they have)

A

individual feels they have no control; feels they have control over situation

188
Q

Avoidance strategies are effective/ineffective + why

A

ineffective because they don’t deal with the stressor.

Year 12 Psychology (5 decks)

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