Unit 3 AOS 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Neuron definition
A
individual nerve cell that receives, transmits and processes information
2
Q
SAME acronym
A
sensory, afferent, motor, efferent
3
Q
Human nervous system definition
A
a communication subsystem that consists of networks of neurons that connects the brain, spinal cord, and different parts of the body to each other via electrochemical signals
4
Q
What are the two main divisions of the human nervous system
A
peripheral nervous system, central nervous system
5
Q
Central nervous system definition
A
a major division of the nervous system consisting of all the nerves in the brain and spinal cord
6
Q
What is the CNS made up of
A
the brain and the spinal cord
7
Q
What does the brain do (3 things)
A
1) regulates and guides all other parts of the nervous system. 2) Receives information via senses, processes it and co-ordinates appropriate response (via spinal cord). 3) It is responsible for higher order functions (planning, thinking, learning)
8
Q
What is the spinal cord
A
a column of nerve fibres that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back.
9
Q
What are the 2 functions of the spinal cord
A
1) to receive sensory information from the PNS and transmit it to the brain via afferent tracts, 2) and to receive motor information from the brain and transmit it to the PNS via efferent tracts
10
Q
Where do afferent tracts begin
A
the spinal cord
11
Q
Peripheral nervous system definition
A
network of neurons located outside the CNS, comprising of muscles, organs and glands
12
Q
Functions of the PNS
A
transmit sensory information to CNS, transmit motor messages from CNS - i.e. receive and respond to sensory information
13
Q
What are the two main divisions of the PNS
A
autonomic nervous system, somatic nervous system
14
Q
Somatic nervous system definition
A
the division of the PNS that transmits sensory info received from sensory receptor cells inwards towards the CNS and motor messages from the CNS to the body’s skeletal voluntary muscles
15
Q
The somatic nervous system is also known as
A
the skeletal nervous system
16
Q
The 2 functions of the somatic nervous system
A
1) transmits information from receptor sites on sense organs to the CNS (via afferent pathways), 2) Carries information from the CNS to the muscles that control movement (via efferent pathways)
17
Q
Autonomic nervous system definition
A
transmits motor messages from the brain to the body’s internal organs, muscles and glands which results in involuntary activity of these, and transmits messages to brain about these
18
Q
Functions of the autonomic nervous system
A
1) carries neural messages between CNS and the internal visceral muscles, organs and glands, 2) and it regulates the internal functions of these organs/glands/muscles
19
Q
Biofeedback definition
A
a process by which a person receives information about their autonomic physiological activity (instruments) in order to learn how to control these.
20
Q
What are the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system
A
sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system
21
Q
Sympathetic nervous system definition
A
branch of the ANS that alters the activity level of internal muscles, organs and glands to physically prepare our body for increased activity during times of high emotional or physical arousal e.g. stress.
22
Q
Function of the sympathetic nervous system
A
activates internal muscles, organs and glands to prepare body for vigorous activity, or to deal with a stressful situation
23
Q
Fight-flight-freeze response
A
a response triggered by the sympathetic nervous system that physiologically prepares the body during a stressful situation in order to optimise survival and involves either confronting the stressor (fight), running away (flight) or remaining stationary (freeze).
24
Q
Fight-flight-freeze response involves what systems
A
nervous (autonomic and sympathetic) and endocrine
25
Parasympathetic nervous system definition
branch of ANS that maintains energy levels appropriate for normal bodily functioning and physically calms us after high arousal by reversing the changes in bodily functioning caused by the domination of the sympathetic nervous system
26
The 3 functions of the parasympathetic nervous system
1) Counterbalances sympathetic nervous system responses (returns body back to normal functioning/state of calm) through physically calming us after high arousal by reversing the changes in bodily functioning caused by the domination of the sympathetic nervous system, 2) and it maintains the body’s natural state of equilibrium (homeostasis). 3) This also allows resources to be saved for when needed and restoring depleted resources.
27
What are conscious responses
neural communication that involves conscious awareness and any somatic nervous system functions
28
What are unconscious responses
Neural communication involving unconscious awareness involves any autonomic nervous system functions such as breathing, digestion, blood pressure
29
What is a reflex action
simple automatic response that is hardwired into our nervous system e.g. blinking when dust goes into eyes
30
Spinal reflex definition
An automatic response that is initiated by interneurons in the spinal cord instead of the brain.
31
What is an interneuron
a specialised neuron that links sensory and motor neurons; located in the CNS
32
What happens in a spinal reflex
sensory neurons receive an intense sensation, this information travels to the spinal cord to interneurons, interneurons send motor information to withdraw,
33
When does a spinal reflex reaction occur
intense sensation, danger/threat/critical time
34
The spinal reflex is a ___ response
survival response
35
Why does the message bypass the brain initially
to get a quicker response, therefore less negative impact and more chance of survival
36
Why does the message then go to the brain after acted
to learn
37
What is pain
an unpleasant sensory or emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage
38
Example of spinal reflex
burn, sting
39
Monosynaptic reflex
reflex response that involves one synapse and the interaction between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron
40
Example of monosynaptic reflex
patellar ‘knee jerk’ reflex
41
Monosynaptic reflexes do not involve…
interneurons
42
Polysynaptic reflexes definition
a reflex response that involves the activation of more than one synapse: it includes an interneuron making a connection between a sensory and a motor neuron
43
Example of polysynaptic reflex
withdrawal reflex, spinal reflex
44
Dendrite (function/structure)
neuron fibre that extends from the soma that receives incoming neural information from other neurons
45
Define soma
the main cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus that is responsible for integrating information (receive from dendrites, pass on to axon)
46
Define axon
pathway down which neural message travels
47
Define myelin sheath
a fatty white tissue that coats the axons of some neurons - role is to protect the axon and assist with speed of transmission of neural message
48
Define axon terminals
Exit pathways for neural message to make their way to next neuron
49
Define terminal buttons
Releases neurotransmitters to a receiving neuron for communication purposes
50
Define glial cells
assist in structure of neurons/nutrition
51
Remember about neural transmission
neurons don't move, message does
52
Neural transmission involves ____ energy
electrochemical energy
53
Resting potential is
positive on outside, negative on inside
54
Action potential is positive/negative outside/inside...
negative outside, positive on inside
55
Resting potential definition
the typical internal environment (negatively charged) of a neuron in comparison to the external environment (positively charged)
56
All or nothing means
no levels of action potential only there is or isn’t
57
What comes first polarisation/depolarisation/repolarisation
polarisation, then depolarisation then repolarisation
58
Define receptor sites (neuron)
areas on the cell membrane of the dendrites of post-synaptic neuron that are sensitive to specific neurotransmitters
59
Neurotransmitters definition
a chemical messenger synthesised within a pre-synaptic neuron and transmitted across a synapse.
60
Excitatory neurotransmitters definition
neurotransmitters that cause the post-synaptic neuron to fire/stimulate post-synaptic neuron
61
Inhibitory neurotransmitters definition
neurotransmitters that prevent the post-synaptic neuron from firing.
62
Glutamate is responsible for
high speed neural transmission and is necessary for memory and learning.
63
What is one receptor site for glutamate
NMDA
64
What does too much glutamate do
too much glutamate has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as motor neuron disease.
65
Is glutamate excitatory or inhibitory
excitatory
66
What does GABA stand for
gamma amino butyric acid
67
What does GABA do
calm and slow neural transmission, decrease anxiety
68
What are the receptor sites for GABA
GABAa, GABAb, GABAc
69
What is low levels of GABA linked to (2)
epilepsy (less inhibition) and anxiety
70
Is GABA excitatory or inhibitory
inhibitory
71
Other neurotransmitters (other than GABA and glutamate)
acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin
72
What is acetylcholine responsible for and what happens without it
memory and without it Alzheimer's
73
What is epinephrine responsible for
arousal
74
What is another name for epinephrine
adrenaline
75
What is dopamine responsible for and what happens without it
motivation, voluntary movement, without it Parkinson’s disease/depression
76
What is serotonin responsible for and what happens without it
mood, without it Schizophrenia
77
What causes neurotransmitter interruption
imbalance or deficiency in a particular type of neurotransmitter
78
What causes imbalances/deficiencies (4)
drugs, diet/nutrition, stress, genetics
79
What are the effects of neurotransmitter interruptions
the functioning of the nervous system is affected, leading to chronic changes such as neurodegenerative diseases, mental health disorders, addiction, immobility, weight loss/gain
80
Define neurodegenerative diseases
diseases that gradually and progressively kill nerve cellsThis causes permanent or long-lasting loss of abilities such as balance, movement, talking, breathing, heart function and cognition.
81
Causes of neurodegenerative diseases
genetics, toxins, chemicals, tumors, stress, viruses, stroke, diet/nutrition,..
82
Parkinson’s disease definition
is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by chronic progressive changes in the brain due to the malfunction and deterioration to neurons, which leads to impairment in movement
83
What are the primary symptoms of Parkinson's disease
rigidity, stooped posture, tremors of the head, head bent forwards, loss of postural reflexes, muscle stiffness, shuffling, bone demineralisation, reduced coordination and balance, drooling, tremors of the head
84
What are the secondary symptoms of Parkinson's disease
social isolation, anxiety/depression, stooped posture, speech problems, pain in the limbs, constipation, weight loss
85
Where is dopamine found in the brain
substantia Nigra
86
What does damage to dopamine producing neurons mean
less dopamine is generated, which causes movement problems
87
Treatments for low dopamine (2)
levodopa and dopamine agonists, surgery
88
What is levodopa
is an amino acid that the neurons in the brain convert to dopamine to raise levels and reduce symptoms of PD - This can cause side effects such as nausea, and if used long term, can cause muscle spasms.
89
What are dopamine agonists
are another type of drug used to treat PD. They stimulate the dopamine receptors of the brain and imitate the effects of dopamine. They will ease symptoms but will not stop the progression of the disease. Side effects include hallucinations, sleep disturbances and impulse control disorders
90
Define Alzheimer’s disease and what neurotransmitter is low in patients with Alzheimer’s
is an irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease which causes severe cognitive and behavioural decline. Low levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine which play a vital role in memory are found in these patients.
91
Huntington’s disease
is a genetic disease that leads to jerky movements but also dementia and depression. It causes degeneration of neurons that contain the neurotransmitter GABA - an inhibitory neurotransmitter that stops anxiety (not enough GABA makes you anxious)
92
Motor neuron disease
is characterised by progressive degeneration of motor neurons, leading to weakening of muscles and paralysis. Lack of regulation of the neurotransmitter glutamate causes toxicity to motor neurons.
93
Stress definition
a state of physiological tension produced by internal or external forces which is perceived as exceeding a person’s resources or ability to cope.
94
Stressor definition
an internal or external (person, situation, or event) source of tension.
95
Examples of physical stressors
sleep deprivation, hunger, hot/cold, thirst, pain/illness
96
Stress response definition
physiological and psychological changes experienced when confronted by a stressor.
97
Chronic stress definition
a state of prolonged physiological arousal in response to a persistent stressor that negatively affects health and wellbeing.
98
Acute stress definition
a state of brief but intense physiological arousal in response to an immediate perceived stressor that normally has no negative effects on health and wellbeing.
99
Eustress definition
positive psychological response to a perceived stressor.
100
What feelings does eustress often result in
excitement, enthusiasm, alertness
101
Distress definition
a negative psychological response to a perceived stressor.
102
What are the two types of stress
eustress, distress
103
What feelings does distress often lead to
anger, anxiety, irritability, tension, nervousness.
104
What causes stress (4)
daily pressures, life events, acculturation (acculturative stress), catastrophes that disrupt whole communities.
105
Daily pressures definition
frequently experienced stressors consisting of relatively minor events that require adjustments in behaviour.
106
Example of a daily pressure
missing the bus
107
Important thing to remember about daily pressures
everyone responds to these differently
108
Life events definition
stressors that consist of significant but relatively rare events that require substantial adjustments
109
Examples of life events
death of a spouse, change in residence
110
Name of scale that measures life events stress
Holmes and Rahe Life Stress Inventory
111
Acculturation definition
a process that involves a person changing their behaviour to adopt the cultural traits or social patterns of the dominant culture they moved to.
112
Acculturative stress definition
stress caused by attempting to psychologically and socially adapt to the demands and values of a foreign culture
113
Effects of low stress and high stress acculturation
low = integration, assimilation, then separation, marginalisation = high
114
Examples of acculturative stress
immigrating to a new country, moving schools
115
Catastrophes that disrupt entire communities definition
a sudden, unpredictable, uncontrollable, intense event that causes large scale damage and suffering for a group.
116
Examples of catastrophes
severe weather conditions, war, political uprising, natural disasters
117
Catastrophes can be both….
acute and chronic
118
What are acute catastrophes + e.g.
very severe but able to recover, e.g. event without long lasting effects
119
What are chronic catastrophes + e.g.
sustained or ongoing hardship as a result of the catastrophe e.g. loose house in flood
120
Psychological responses can’t always be…
observed
121
How are psychological responses inferred/determined
behaviour, self-reports
122
Examples of physiological responses to stress
skin rashes, headaches, colds/flue, heart palpitations, heart attack, stomach ulcers.
123
Psychosomatic illness definition
physiological symptoms that arise as a result of psychological stressors or factors - stress makes you more susceptible to illness
124
The relationship between stress and illness
it doesn’t cause illness, but makes you more susceptible
125
Yerkes-Donson curve
performance increases with arousal but only to a certain point, low arousal = low performance, high arousal = low performance, medium arousal = optimum performance
126
Applied Yerkes-Donson practice exams question
same location reduces arousal, medium arousal, optimum performance
127
What is the HPA axis
the physiological process involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal glands, in which stress hormones (adrenaline, noradrenalin and cortisol) are released during times of stress (fight-flight-freeze response).
128
HPA process explained
1) when a stressor is identified, the hypothalamus is activated 2) the hypothalamus then activates the pituitary gland which released a hormone (ACTH), 3) the ACTH reaches the adrenal glands which then release adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol into the bloodstream.
129
Purpose of releasing adrenaline
adrenaline boosts the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and therefore increases heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, which means that there is more oxygen to help muscles meet energy needs for fight-flight-freeze response
130
What prompts the release of cortisol
adrenaline
131
What is the purpose of cortisol release
it allows the body to cope with stress by maintaining its health and wellbeing during times of threat.
132
Why is prolonged stress harmful in terms of cortisol (2)
1) cortisol stays at high levels meaning the immune system becomes less effective and individual susceptible to illness and can also lead to over-eating of unhealthy foods and damage to blood vessels. 2) cortisol can also become depleted and this means that its function of maintaining the body’s health and wellbeing is lost so body is susceptible to illness
133
Why is prolonged stress harmful (other) 3 reasons
can cause dizziness/rashes/heart palpitations/fatigue, diversion of blood away from digestive organs can produce indigestion and ulcers, can lead to persistent elevated heart rate and could result in heart disease/attack
134
What does GAS stand for
(Selye’s) General Adaptation Syndrome
135
Who discovered GAS
Hans Selye
136
GAS was the first…
model to explain stress from a biological perspective
137
How was GAS discovered
Selye experimented on rats by pulling on their tails to cause stress
138
What is GAS
the body’s typical response pattern in terms of resistance to stress over time, comprising of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance stage and exhaustion.
139
What are the 3 stages of GAS
Alarm reaction (shock, counter shock), Resistance stage, and exhaustion stage
140
Alarm reaction stage
includes shock and counter shock - resistance drops below normal then above
141
Shock
resistance levels fall below normal, body acts as though injured, body temp/blood pressure drop, muscles temporarily lose tone,
142
Counter-shock
activation of sympathetic nervous system, increase body’s resistance, flood of hormones, fight-flight-freeze response,
143
Resistance stage
if threat remains individual appears as though all is normal/okay, cortisol released, immunity starts to drop (additional stressors could cause illness)
144
Exhaustion stage
body depleted, serious illness
145
Strengths of GAS
predictable and measurable, applies to different types of stress.
146
Limitations of GAS
developed based on research on animals rather than humans (difficult to generalise), does not account for individual differences between people or take into account psychological factors
147
3 aspects of psychological responses to stress
cognitive, emotional, behavioural
148
Behavioural includes
insomnia, alcohol/drugs, aggressive behaviour, less eating
149
What is the psychological model of response to stress
Lazarus and Folkman’s Translactional Model of Stress and Coping
150
What does Lazarus and Folkman’s model state
that stress involves a transaction between the environment and the person’s interpretation of the stressor.
151
What is stress the result of Lazarus and Folkman
an interaction between an individual’s interpretation of the environment and the environment itself/
152
When is a stress response experienced in Lazarus and Folkman
when there is an imbalance between a person’s appraisal and their estimation of their ability to cope
153
What is Lazarus and Folkman’s model made up of
primary appraisal, secondary appraisal (reappraisal that may occur in secondary appraisal)
154
What does individual asses in primary appraisal of Lazarus and Folkman
is there a stressor
155
What is the primary appraisal
is it positive/benign or stressful, and if it is stressful, is it a challenge or a threat and if it is a threat is there a threat of harm/loss
156
What is a threat in Lazarus and Folkman
is there a threat of harm/loss - may lead to distress
157
What is a challenge in Lazarus and Folkman
is there potential for growth from the situation - may lead to eustress
158
What does an individual asses in secondary appraisal of Lazarus and Folkman
coping options and resources for dealing with the stressor, internal and external sources for coping results in either distress or eustress
159
Problem focused coping
directly targets the stressor and when individual feels they have control over the situation
160
Emotional focused coping
manage emotional distress caused by stressor and changing unpleasant emotions associated with it
161
Examples of emotional focused coping
crying into pillow, seeking emotional support, defence mechanisms, minimising (it’s not that bad), distracting
162
What is reappraisal (Lazarus and Folkman)
reconsidering whether primary appraisal was accurate - may change due to consideration of coping
163
Emotional forecasting in first stage
person attempts to predict potential emotional outscome of situation
164
Secondary stage emotional forecasting
person attempts to predict potential emotional outcome of the coping mechanism chosen
165
Strengths of Lazarus and Folkman’s model (5)
takes into account both psychological and emotional aspects when determining how people cope with stressors, explains why different individuals respond in different ways to the same types of stressors and explains why stressors and circumstances can change over time, proposes different methods for managing psychological responses to stressors and has enhanced understanding of the importance of stress-management strategies and programs, used human subjects in research/development of model
166
Limitations of Lazarus and Folkman’s model (2)
focuses on psychological factors and little attention to the role physiological factors play in the stress response, lack of empirical evidence to support it as it relies on self reports (subjective data)
167
Coping definition
a process involving constantly changing thoughts and behaviours so we can manage the demands of stressors we appraise as exceeding our resources.
168
Define coping skills
learnt behaviours or techniques that help us solve problems or meet the demands of a stressor.
169
Define coping strategy
the behavioural and psychological responses a person makes to a stressor that are intended to manage the stressor and reduce the physical and psychological stress related to it.
170
Define contextual factors
the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event and influence whether or not we perceive a stimulus as a stressor and the intensity of the stress experienced.
171
Define context specific effectiveness
when there is a good match between the stressor and the coping strategy used.
172
What can help determine how someone will cope with high stress situations
stress and coping research and suitability studies, which are most effective when the context that will be experiences can be replicated then individual differences can be predicted
173
Define coping flexibility
the ability of an individual to replace an ineffective coping strategy with a different and more effective coping strategy based on the demands of the situation
174
People with higher coping flexibility have…
more positive outcomes, low incidence of mental illness
175
Coping strategies include
approach strategies, avoidance strategies, physical exercise, meditation, social support,
176
Define approach strategies
practical stress management strategies that consist of behavioural or psychological responses designed to change (remove or diminish) the nature of the stressor or how one thinks about it.
177
Approach strategies can include…
problem-focused strategies that directly target the stressor and aim to reduce it, and emotion-focused strategies which are aimed at managing the emotional distress caused by the stressor and changing the unpleasant emotions associated with it
178
Physical benefits of exercise (3.5)
it eliminates stress hormones (cortisol) and strengthens the immune system, relaxes tense muscles to reduce aches and pains, releases serotonin and beta-endorphins,
179
Psychological benefits of exercise (5)
reduces mental fatigue, improves alertness and concentration, reduces stress related anxiety, promotes positive mood, may increase social interaction if done with others
180
Mediation strategies include
relaxation and mindfulness
181
Why meditation is beneficial
help you move your thinking and see things from another perspective or help you to gain perspective on what’s important and what’s not
182
Benefits of social support (6)
help with coping flexibility, resources to help you think in another mindset and improve your understanding of the situation, provide material support, ideas with how to cope and helps to individual to feel cared for and valued.
183
Define avoidance strategies
stress management strategies that involve choosing your response to a stressor based on trying to either cognitively or behaviourally avoid or escape painful or threatening thoughts, feelings, memories or sensations associated with the stressor.
184
Avoidance strategies include
drugs and alcohol
185
Why are drugs and alcohol avoidance strategies
don’t think about stressors in another state but can snowball to more effects as it doesn’t eradicate cortisol/adrenaline some can actually stimulate it, which leads to a worse situation.
186
Remember physiological response to stress is… and psychological is…
involuntary, voluntary/conscious
187
Avoidance strategies are used when… and approach when… (in terms of how much control individual feels they have)
individual feels they have no control; feels they have control over situation
188
Avoidance strategies are effective/ineffective + why
ineffective because they don’t deal with the stressor.
