Unit 3 Flashcards
What are horses used for?
work, performance, and recreation
Understanding how horses perceive and react to the world around them allows us to better _____, _____, and _____ them.
appreciate, train, and manage
Why is studying the horse’s behavior important?
- Can learn a better understanding of the horse’s nature we can learn how to work more safely and more effectively with horses
- Through a more thorough understanding of how the horse evolved we will have an enhanced understanding of how to manage horses
What is behavior?
the manner in which an animal reacts to stimuli
What is a horse’s behavior a product of?
It’s biology (“nature”) and its environment (“nurture”), and includes actions in response to internal and external stimuli
What is equine ethology?
the scientific study of the way horses act (behave)
What differences of the horse brain compared to humans reflect some of the behavioral differences between the species?
the proportionally large cerebellum in the equine brain indicates the importance of sensory integration, body awareness, balance, movement, and coordination
The structure of the brain suggests that the horse evolved to ______________________
act and then think
The horse evolved primarily as a __________
plains dweller
Due to the plentiful, but fairly low-quality forage available on the plains, the horse evolved to be a __________
grazer, eating small amounts of feed in a nearly continuous manner
Is the horse a prey or predator animal?
prey
What predatory animals are horses prey for?
large cats and wolves
The horse has developed a very strong what because of being a prey animal?
flight response
Where did the donkey likely evolve?
mountainous terrain
What will a donkey do differently than a horse?
donkeys will typically evaluate a situation more thoroughly before deciding to flee
What are the horse’s 5 senses?
- Vision
- Audition - hearing
- Olfaction - smell
- Gustation - taste
- Tactician - touch
What is the horse’s eye like size compared to land mammals?
is among the largest of all land mammals
Where is the eye placed on a horse’s head?
side of the head
What shape is the horse’s pupil?
more horizontal shape
What happens due to the combination of the horse’s eye placement and pupil shape?
makes the horse excellent at detecting movement
Does the horse have a small or large range of peripheral vision?
large
Monocular vision
allows the horse to see separate images out of each eye making them able to see movements on each side of their body
Binocular vision
allows the horse to see an object more clearly
What does monocular vision allow the horse to see?
allows the horse to see nearly all around his body
Without turning its head a horse cannot see where?
- directly in front of his face
- under head and neck
- under belly
- directly behind tail
What does binocular vision allow horse to do?
focus on an object in the distance and then investigate it close up
A horses field of vision will change according to its __________?
head position
Horses will utilize their depth perception to rate the __________ as in show jumping?
distance of obstacles
Do horses have color vision?
yes
How many types of cones do horses have in their eye?
2
what does the amount of cones a horse has result in?
dichromatic color vision
The horse’s ability to see in low light is due to the structure in the eye called the __________?
tapetum lucidum
What does the tapetum lucidum structure cause?
eyeshine, when light is, shines at the horse in the dark or iridescent eye appearance noticeable in photographs
Can horses see better in the dark than humans?
yes
The horse’s eye does not adjust to sudden changes in what?
lighting
How many degrees can a horse’s ears rotate (approximately)?
180 degrees
Where do a horse’s ears point?
toward the source of the sound to pick up more information
The eyes and ears typically are working together, and the direction of the ear can tell you where your horse is __________?
paying attention
What are the 3 primary functions of audition?
- detect sounds
- determine the location of the sound
- provide information to recognize the identity of those sounds
Can horses hear a wider range of frequencies and tend to react to sounds that humans may not perceive?
yes
Comparative studies have shown what about horses’ hearing?
that horses have more acute hearing at higher frequency than humans, and that humans tend to hear better at low and mid-frequency range.
What is the lowest frequency horses can hear at 60 dB?
What is the highest frequency horses can hear at 60 dB?
55
33.5
What do horses use their sense of smell for?
to familiarize with novel objects, surroundings, other horses, and people
What is the first thing you should do when acquainting yourself to a horse?
let them smell you
What enables the horse’s nostril to open for entry of odor molecules and intake of air when investigating?
size, shape, flexibility, and muscling of the nostril
What is olfaction important for?
- location of food
- ensuring food and water are of acceptable quality
- identification of other horses, people, and objects
- alerting the horse to predators
- identification of marked territories of other horses
- initiating reproductive behaviors
What allows the horse to detect odors?
chemoreceptors in the mucous membranes of the nasal passage
As odorous molecules enter the passageway, they bind with chemoreceptors sending signals to the _________ via the __________.
brain ; olfactory nerve
Where does interpretation of the odor then take place?
the brain
What is an accessory organ the horse has that helps them smell?
the Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
Where is the VNO located? What is it used for?
located inside the horse’s nose and is used to detect pheromones and other substances
What do horse’s do using the VNO?
Flehmen Response
What do horses do when they display the flehmen response?
a horse will curl his lip ip and lift his head back
When is the flehmen response behavior observed?
observed in stallions when they are investigating mare’s urine to differentiate estrus mares from diestrus mares
What is the flehmen response thought to do?
intensify smells
What is the flehmen response most commonly seen in?
stallions and geldings
What sense is very well developed in a horse
sense of touch
How refined is a horse’s sense of touch?
a horse is able to detect the presence of an insect on its coat
What are the most sensitive areas in a horse?
- ears
- eyes
- nose
- flank (sides)
- legs
When is the sense of touch of great importance?
during training and riding
Why is the sense of touch of great importance during training and riding?
This sensitivity helps the horse feel and response to subtle cues, including shifts in rider weight and very slight application of pressure from the aids
Most horses learn to accept and trust human touch through what?
desensitization and habituation
Evidence that horses have the ability to feel pain includes:
- lameness
- painkillers are effective
Like olfaction, the horse’s sense of taste also relies on _____?
chemoreceptors
What are the horses basic tastes?
- bitter
- sweet
- salt
- sour
There is also evidence that horses, like children, may develop a __________ over time
sweet tooth
What are the horse’s flavor preferences?
- fenugreek (aromatic herb)
- banana
- cherry (artificial flavoring only - natural cherry trees can cause toxicity in horses)
- rosemary
- cumin
- carrot
- peppermint
- oregano
What are the 8 categories of horse behavior?
- Ingestive (eating/drinking)
- Eliminative (waste removal)
- Play
- Investigative
- Vigilance
- Caregiving / care seeking
- Agonistic / aggressive
- Social facilitation
What is ingestive behavior?
the selection and intake of food, milk, and water at each stage throughout the horse’s lifespan
How are horses designed to consume food?
designed to consume small, frequent meals consisting of primarily high-fiber, low-quality forages like hay and grasses
Where should horses browse from?
shrubs, bushes, and trees
What are the key components of normal grazing behavior?
locomotion and movement as the horse moves from feeding station to feeding station
What distance can be covered in a single day while grazing?
several miles
How do horses tend to take trips to go get a drink of water?
tend to go as a herd
When do horses consume more water?
tend to consume more water in the warm weather than in cool weather
What are horses finicky about when it comes to water?
can be finicky about the smell and source of water
Why is it important to be observant of a horse’s ingestive and eliminative behavior?
changes in eating and drinking and/or eliminative behavior may be signs of pain, discomfort, or illness
What is eliminative behavior?
actions and behaviors the horse does to get waste products out
What are the primary eliminative mechanisms?
urination and defecation
What management is required of horse waste
- removal of manure from the horse’s living space
- where to put it
- what to do with it
What will discriminate horses do in terms of elimination?
they will go in the same place almost every time
Do horses prefer to eat grass where they have eliminated?
no
Investigative behavior
many horses are naturally curious and they explore their surroundings through investigative behavior
When can the horse’s curiosity work in our advantage?
during training
What is play behavior?
often characterized as actions that seem to resemble more serious behaviors, but are carried out with less serious intent, and have an element of pleasure or surprise
When is play behavior especially important?
for the development of young horses
What are the four distinct categories of play?
- object play
- locomotor play
- play fighting
- sexual play
Who do horses seek care from/ for?
seek care from other horses, but also aim to give care to each other
When can caregiving behaviors be seen?
when pasture mates scratch each other’s withers and backs
What is the whinny?
characterized as an attention-seeking behavior and is displayed even in neonatal foals
What is allogrooming?
care directed from one horse to another
What is mutual grooming?
when horses are reciprocating care behaviors (grooming)
What is autogrooming?
the ways in which the horse aims to groom himself
What are the autogrooming behaviors?
- rolling
- scratching with hooves
- scratching with teeth
- rubbing on objects
Where do horses prefer to roll?
in dry sandy areas, and rolling is one of the horse’s only means for grooming the topside of the body
What is agonistic behavior?
includes actions related to threats, aggression, and attacks as well has passivity and attempts to defend, escape, or avoid aggression
What is agonistic behavior very much involved in?
in the development, maintenance, and organization of the herd
What are aggressive behaviors?
- biting
- kicking
- striking
- charging
- fleeing
What will you see when you observe a group of horses resting out in a field?
at least one horse will be standing at attention
What are herd dynamics?
social hierarchy, pecking order, or dominance hierarchy
Will hierarchy for food and shelter always be identical?
not always
What does an established dominance hierarchy assist in?
minimizing aggressive interactions in the long run and maintaining stable social groups helps to minimize injury
Dominant horses
will be prone to getting too much feed and becoming overly fat
More submissive horses
will be prone to becoming undernourished and thinner
For management consideration, how much space should horses have?
sufficient space for each horse to display more threat like behaviors and minimize actual aggressive actions (like biting or kicking)
For management consideration, what should corners be like in fences?
should avoid share corners and angles in fence lines whenever possible
Where should you place high values resources (e.g. water tank or hay feeder)?
in open areas where horses have the ability to move around and escape without getting trapped
How large should building openings be?
large enough to allow horses to comfortably pass through. smaller doorways may help keep the shed warmer, but horses will use it less if they fear they might be “trapped”
How should you house different age groups?
should house then separately. older horses will typically be more dominant than young horses leading to overly fed old horses and underfed younsters.
What is critical for horse-to-human and horse-to-horse communication?
body language
How does the horse relay how he is feeling?
uses his whole body and voice
What are the most salient areas of the body to observe and read?
the ears, eyes, lips, head position, and tail
ears pricked
ears held stiff with openings pointed directly forward usually means the horse is alert
ears neutral
is when the ears are held loosely upward, openings facing forward or outward
airplane ears
the ears flop out laterally with opening facing down, usually means the horse is tired or depressed
drooped ears
hang down loosely to the side, usually means tiredness or pain
ears angled backwards
usually meaning attentiveness to the rider or listening to commands
ears pinned flat against the neck
angry and aggressive
tail tightly clamped down
fear, nervousness, tension
–> may precede a kick with hind legs
a highly raised tail - compared to the natural, relaxed carriage
a hyper alert state
excitability
excess energy
–> horse may benefit from warm up lunging before being ridden
swishing and/or “wringing” of tail
irritation / frustration
- swishing generally is most often performed as means of removing flies and other biting insects, but also may occur during training to an aversive stimulus
- tail wringing is most often observed in high-level performance horses during intense work
subtle, rhythmic swishes of tail
may indicate changes in balancing (for example when the horse is performing lead changes in the canter)
legs pawing
they are frustrated or bored
one front leg lifed
can be a mild threat (or normal stance when sometimes eating)
a back leg lifted
is often a more defensive threat
stamping legs
indicates a mild threat or protest (or they may be getting rid of flies biting their legs)
snapping facial expression
this is seen in foals showing submission to an older horse
jaws open with teeth exposed
this shows aggression or possible attack
the flehmen response
this is caused by an intense or unusual smell, usually in stallions when they sense a mare in heat
flared nostrils
usually means they are excited or alert
showing whites around their eyes
usually means they are nervous or scared
When and where was the horse domesticated?
evidence suggests around the Ukraine region approximately 6,000 years ago
Why was the horse initially domesticated?
as a food source
When and where did humans begin using horses for work?
5,000 years ago in the North East
What did horses play a significant role in as developing civilizations can into conflict?
war
How do feral horses typically organize themselves?
into a small breeding band consisting of a mature stallion, mature mares, and the immature offspring
What happens when immature males approach puberty?
they are driven off & often form small bachelor bands
How much time do feral horses spend engaged in foraging behavior?
1/2 of the day
How much of the day to feral horses spend lying down?
8%
What is a horse’s sleeping pattern like?
in small segments versus a long session
What helps potentially reduce a horse’s vulnerability to predators?
the developments of a “stay apparatus” in the front legs
What does the “stay apparatus” do?
horses can actually lock their front legs and sleep while standing up (though they do not go into deep REM sleep in this position)
What are stereotypic behaviors?
repetitive, invariant, behavior with no obvious goal or function
What type of horses are stereotypic behaviors observed in?
domestic and captive wild horses
What percentage of domesticated horses in Canada and the UK exhibit stereotypies
13%
What were stereotypies referred to as in the past?
stable vices
Are stereotypic behaviors the result of only “boredom”?
not simply to result of boredom, but have legitimate physiological causes
What are the categories of stereotypic behaviors?
oral stereotypies –> mouth
locomotor stereotypies –> movement
What do oral stereotypies include?
cribbing
wind-sucking
wood-chewing
What do locomotor stereotypies include?
weaving
stall-walking / box-walking
head movements
pawing
Cribbing and Windsucking
a horse bites onto a hard surface, arches its neck and sucks in air, making a grunting noise
What happens when a horse cribs or windsucks?
causes a release of endorphins
–> cribbing becomes addictive
How to manage cribbing
- increase the amount of long-stemmed forage
- reducing amount of grain
- offering multiple types of forage
- increasing the number of meals per day
- cribbing collars (won’t completely eliminate)
Is wood chewing common?
yes
What are the common causes of wood chewing
- boredom
- unbalanced diet
How to manage wood chewing
- increase amount of long-stemmed forage
- reduce amount of grain in diet
- offer multiple types of forage
- feeding more small meals per day
- if this doesn’t help – apply rubber coating to wood, or a no chew solution (horses don’t like sour or spicy flavors)
When does weaving occur?
when the horse stands by the stall and rhythmically shifts weight back and forth on its front legs while swinging its head
What is weaving associated with?
boredom
How to manage weaving
- increase turn-out time
- allow horses to see neighboring horses
- research has also shown that installing a (non breakable) mirror will reduce the time spent weaving
What can must adult, lightly worked horses have all their energy needs met by?
forage alone (e.g. pasture and hay)
Is grain required for the majority of horses?
no
When should you feed horses?
at least twice per day at nearly the same times each day
–> feeding 3-4x per day or more often is even better
What should you consider feeding during pasture season?
consider having horses on pasture for large part of the day for natural foraging
What behaviors in the wild are not necessary for animals in captivity?
- search for food / water / shelter
- competition with other animals
- escape from predators
- searching for a mate
- social activities
- protecting territory
What does an animal have more of in captivity that may cause abnormal behaviors to develop?
free time
What is enrichment?
an item that increases animals intellectual resources
Cage design
examples: places to hide / burrow, heating devices,
- amount of space
- animal natural habitat
- meet basic needs of animal
Social
- individual vs. group housing
- contact vs. non-contact
Feeding/ foraging
- encourage foraging behavior
- challenges to obtain food
- diet variation
Toys
examples: chew toys, puzzle feeders, snuffle mats, jelly ball
- change to prevent habituation
Visual
- items that attract animal’s eye
~ different colors, shapes, mirrors
~ move in the wind
~ see other animals
Olfactory
- strong smelling foods
- items that have been around other animals
- hunting scent
Auditory
- sound of other animals
- music –> increases likelihood: of breeding, calms animals
- study shows new age better than pop, classical, or no music
Tactile
- novel textures
- paper bag, burlap, bark, foliage
- vary food textures
- touch
- grooming, scratching, rubbing
Training
- increases intellectual focus
- not appropriate for all animals
Environmental Enrichment for dogs
playing music, space, area soley for elimination, puzzle toys
Environmental Enrichment for cats
platforms, multiple levels, litter boxes with space, groom, toys
Environmental Enrichment for rats, mice, rabbits
wheel, nesting material, tunnels
Environmental Enrichment for birds
mirrors, shiny objects, bells
Environmental Enrichment for horses
toys, social interaction, feeding rituals
Environmental Enrichment for reptiles
crickets, small mice, basking rock
Environmental Enrichment for fish
different colors, different types of food, other fish companions
What types of birds are in order Psittaciformes?
parrots, parakeets, macaws
What types of birds are in order Passeriformes?
canaries, finches, starlings, wrens, cardinals
What size does order Psittaciformes range from?
4-40 inches
What is order Psittaciformes commonly known as?
the parrot family
What physical characteristics does order Psittaciformes have?
curved bulls and zygodactyl feet
Birds in zygodactyl Psittaciformes order are _____, _____, and _____
intelligent, colorful, and unique
Where is order Psittaciformes mainly found?
subtropical regions of the southern hemisphere
Are parrots strictly figuvores?
no, rather they are ominvores
What is the exception to being an omnivore in the parrot family?
the lory parrot –> can only eat pollen
How strong are parrots jaws / beak?
they can snap open nutshells or if large enough, can even take off a finger
What is the largest bird order? How many known species make up this group?
order Passeriformes. has over 10,000 known species
Passeriformes physical traits
straight, short beak with relates to their diet with three unwebbed digits up front and hallux on the back
What are Passeriformes aften nicknamed
perching or songbirds
What are the two suborders of Passeriformes?
tyranni and passeri
What is tyranni known for?
born for knowing their songs
what is passeri known for?
using their syrinx to learn and make complex songs
What are the sources of companion birds?
wild caught and captive bred
Wild caught birds
- until 1980’s, birds were wild caught
- more frequent behavior problems
Captive bred birds
- increasing number raised by hand
- make better companions
Small birds
parrotlets, lovebirds, parakeets
Parrotlets
- are the smallest type of parrot
- known for their big personality in a small body
Lovebirds
- known for their loving, attentive bond
- lovebirds are strong bonding animals - best in pairs
Parakeets
- often referred to as an interbird, bit still requires just as much attention
- capable of mimicry
Medium birds
conures, lories, cockatiels, african greys, eclectus
Conures
- bold instead of shy and cautious
- notable for its signature high pitched screech
Lories
- known for its brush-like tongue
- prone to self-mutilating behaviors
Cockatiels
- this type of bird is one of the most popular companion birds
- known for their whistling serenades
African Greys
- known as the “most intelligent of the bird world”
- these birds often pluck their feathers out of boredom
Eclectus
- this species of birds has sexual dimorphism
- comparatively, the eclectus parrot is relatively gentle and doesn’t tolerate frantic activity well
Large birds
amazons, cockatoos, macaws
Amazons
- known for their excellent singing ability
- one of longest lived parrots (60+ years)
Cockatoos
- often referred to as velcro birds because of their insatiable desire to be around humans
- just like children, they can be very loud and have temper tantrums
Macaws
- just as they are large, so is their volume – it can travel over one mile!
- if they wanted, macaws could take off a finger or break a broomstick with one bite
Early development –> hand reared birds
- baby birds are altricial and require to be hand fed food by humans when raised in captivity
After weaning birds
- at this stage, the bird become less dependent and can eat on their own
- human and bird relationship must be developed
Birds weaning to 6 months in the wild vs. in captivity
in the wild:
- learn natural behaviors (i.e. finding food, avoiding enemies, getting home, etc)
in captivity:
- learn modified behaviors (i.e. living at home, understanding manners, etc.)
Notable periods in birds
honeymoon, development, adulthood
Honeymoon
- new to home
~ handle consistently
- socialization
~ exposure to new things
- guidance
~ teach manners and independenceDevelopment
- test boundaries
- new behaviors
~ balance
~ tasting food
~ flying
~ copycat - require socialization
Adulthood
- instinct to reproduce
~ chewing
~ vocalizing - routine behaviors
Feeding behavior in the wild vs. in captivity
in the wild:
- large amount of time spent foraging
- social eaters
in captivity:
- foraging behavior still present
- enrichment should be provided to fulfill instinct
Preening & bathing
- birds preen to remove dirt and feather dust buildup
- although it’s not necessarily vital, regular bathing maintains healthy feathers and skin
Feathers ruffled
sometimes misleading, can mean contentment or defensiveness depending on posture and circumstance
Crest position
only seen in cockatoos and cockatiels, extremely flat = fear vs fully erect = excitement
Eye pinning
rapidly enlarging and shrinking of pupils, should be taken into context with bird’s immediate environment and body posture to get an accurate emotional reading
Head shaking or bobbing
when the bird wants attention
Beak grinding
sign of contentment
Beak wiping
after eating or for marking territory
Beak clicking
single = greeting, rapid repetition = warning
Beak biting
when a bird is fearful, stressed, injured, or ill
Beak chewing
used as a way to eat
Beak mouthing
for playing and wrestling with other birds
Beak regurgitating
to show a great deal of love
Chattering
comes in two different volumes, either for contentment or attention getting
Purring
much like a cat, this means that the parrot is content
Growling
more of a warning, but not seen in all birds
Singing, talking, and whistling
good sign of a healthy and happy bird
Wing flapping
attention getting, or exercise, happy
Wing flipping
in pain or angry, can be mating behavior in some species
Wing dropping
usually in young birds or can indicate illness
Tail wagging
happy to see you or precursor to defacating
Tail flipping
another happy sign
Tail bobbing
generally when a bird is trying to catch their breath
Tail fanning
a way of displaying strength and vitality
Legs & feet tapping
powerplay of dominance in cockatoos
Legs & feet hanging upside down
when birds are happy in their environment
Legs & feet scratching
usually seen in birds who need to forage
Posture relaxed
at attention, but happy and content
Posture bowing
head dipped downward toward you to be pet/ scratched
Posture defensive
lots of puffing and lunging, looking as big as possible
Posture back laying
usually only seen in companion birds
What are the causes of unfavored behaviors in birds?
Unfilled needs
- nutritional deficiency / lack of water
- boredom - not enough foraging opportunities
- cage size - when too small, birds can get upset / irritated
- socialization - not enough novel stimuli
How can biting be reduced?
if you can identify the cause
Why do birds scream?
results from boredom, wanting attention, or some other type of stress?
What do destructive behaviors indicate? How can you reduce this behavior in birds?
- indication that enrichment is insufficient
- including the bird in daily activities might help reduce behavior
What is territoriality as sign of?
- can be a sign of dominant / hormonal behavior, but might also be a sign that the bird is unhappy
When can self mutilation occur in birds?
- feather plucking can occur where birds are severely unsettled / distressed due to their environment (too small, dirty, unstimulating, etc.)
What is unintentional reinforcement?
undesirable behaviors are often worsened by an owner’s reaction whether it’s laughing or crying out
What is the best response to unfavorable behavior in birds?
no response is the best response
What are other solutions to unfavorable behaviors in birds?
- seek professional help
~ research and /or reach out to experienced handlers - anticipate incidents
~ keep a documentation to identify a pattern
How can you change / check cage variables for birds?
- upgrade to a larger size
~ cages should be 1.5x the width, height, and depth of the birds wingspan - change location
~ should be in a place where there is constant activity and up against at least one wall - put at an appropriate height
~ putting a bird cage on the floor will increase stress levels
How can you offer additional mental stimulation for birds?
- provide interactive toys when you are gone and spend time bonding with your bird when you are home
How can you accommodate bird sleeping needs
- adult birds should receive 10-12 hours of darkness each night
- ensure that sound is also reduced after the cage is covered
What are some physical bird enrichment types?
- ideally, your bird should be left out of the cage to receive flying time
- offer plenty of ladders, bungee ropes, and swings, but ensure there is no way the bird can get tangled
What are some mental bird enrichment types?
- parrots spend up to 50-70% of their day searching for food in the wild
- pet birds are only three generations removed from their counterparts and still retain this instinct; therefore. captive birds should have just as much foraging opportunities
- foraging can be presented in handmade contraptions or purchased items
What are some tactile bird enrichment types?
- toys help birds explore with their tongue and beak
- feeling with beak is instinctual to companion birds
- perches allow birds to experience multiple foot positions of different textures
- offering textured perches naturally wear down beaks and toenails
What are some social bird enrichment types?
- birds are social animals
- spending time with a parrot is vitally important
What are some auditory bird enrichment types?
- wild parrots use vocalization across long distances for communication
- play desirable sounds, as many parrots are great at mimicking what they hear around them
What are some visual bird enrichment types?
- birds are visually oriented creatures
- place them where they will be the most entertained
Capturing a behavior
catching an animal in the act of presenting a behavior
Bribery
showing the reinforcer to the animal prior to the behavior
Jackpot
an unusually large or valuable reinforcer delivered upon the first occurance of a behavior
What is the sequence of events for understanding a new behavior in a bird?
capturing a behavior –> bribery –> jackpot
Cue
a signal that tells the animal what to do
Target
teaching an animal to orient a body part towards a specific place
Bridge
a signal or marker that indicates when an animal has done something correct
Reinforcement
providing an animal with a reward after performing the desired behavior
What is the sequence of events for a learned behavior in a bird?
cue –> target –> bridge –> reinforcement
Negative punishment
removal of a positive reinforcement
purpose: decrease or suppress the frequency of a behavior
Negative reinforcement
removal of a stimulus following a behavior
purpose: maintains or increase frequency of the behavior
Positive punishment
presentation of an aversive stimuli
purpose: decrease or suppress the frequency of a behavior
Positive reinforcement
presentation of a positive stimulus following a behavior
purpose: maintains or increases frequency of the behavior
Why should you improve / maintain relationship with your bird?
the more you have in the trust fund, the more you have to take from
Why is exploration important for birds?
access to new stimuli creates new behaviors
Why is praise important for birds?
all being work best when positively reinforced
