Unit 3 Flashcards
chapter 3
what was the purpose of the milgram experiment?
study obedience to an authority figure
how did stanley milgram study obedience to an authority figure?
had a confederate (A confederate is anyone who supports you and works toward the same goal with you) be in the experiment and a volunteer, they had to draw slips of paper to determine who would be the teacher and who would be the learner. if the learner got something wrong on the test the teacher had to shock them with a higher voltage each time
what was unethical about milgrams experiement?
picking the slips was rigged and the volunteer was always the teacher, this could cause psychological stress to the volunteer as he was encouraged to continue hurting a person
what did the results of milgrams experiment show us?
that we can resist authority
two types of deception (misrepresenting info to participants) in milgram’s experiments
misleading participants about a studys goals (participants agreed to take part in a study on memory and learning)
staging a situation (volunteers were unknowing participants in a staged play)
why do researchers use decption?
because they think if they tell the participants whats actually going on, they will not agree to take place in it
alternatives to deception
role playing
simulation studies
honest experiments
what is role playing?
ask participants to role play
ex. imagine what you would do in this situation
ex. predict how real participants in a situation would behave
(issue with this is people might lie, or figure out what the researcher wants them to say. a real situation would be better)
what is a simulation study?
used to examine conflict between individuals in a competition, driving behaviour using driving simulators or jury deliberations
normally dont raise ethical issues
how is the stanford prison study an example of a simulation study?
students were paid to act as guards or prisoners in a simulated prison (experiement stopped early because the people of higher power (guards) started to take their role too seriously)
(the only simulation study that raised ethical issues
what is an honest experiment?
research design that does not try to misinform or hide information from participants
ex. speed dating
who developed a code of medical and research ethics?
nuremberg war tribunal
why did they come up with the code of medical and research ethics?
after german doctors conducted horrific experiments on their prisoners (no informed consent)
why is informed consent of participants often a problem for researchers?
knowledge of the hypothesis may bias the participants’ behavior.
what are the recommendations to follow ethics according to nuremberg war tribunal?
participants should consent to participate in research
participants should be fully informed about the research’s purpose
risks should be avoided when possible
participants should be shielded against possible risks to the fullest extent
only scientifically qualified persons should conduct research
participants have the right to withdrawal from any research design at any time
what are the two bodies that provide guidelines for ethical human research?
Tri-Council Policy Statement
the Canadian Psychological Association code of ethics
the tri- council refers to the three federally funded research grant agencies, what are they?
canadian institutes of health research (CIHR)
social sciences and humanities research council of canada (SSHRC)
natural sciences and engineering research council of canada (NSERC)
what is REB?
research ethics board (if you have funding from tri- council you must use a REB that reviews the study before starting any research on humans)
what is exempt research?
research that does not require REB review when it:
only uses publicly available information that is legally accessible
only involves observing people in public places without any intervention or interaction by the researcher and no individuals can be identified when presenting the results
uses data that have already been collected and are completely anonymous
what is minimal risk research?
risks of harm to participants are no greater than the risks on would normally encounter in daily life. approval of REB can be delegated to a single member rather than considered by the whole committee
what is greater than minimal risk research?
subject to thorough review by the full REB committee
if trying to decide if the research is minimal risk or greater than minimal risk it will just be categorized as greater than minimal risk
what are the 3 basic ethical principles that express the value of ensuring human dignity and are specified in the tri council policy statement (TCPS2)?
respect for persons
concern for welfare
justice
how must researchers show respect for persons?
respect the autonomy (let people choose participation freely)
protect those who have developing, impaired autonomy
participants should be treated as autonomous and capable of making deliberate decisions to participate in research (informed consent)
what is included in TCPS2 consent form? 7
-purpose of research
-procedures used (including time involved)
-risks and benefits to the participant and society
-any compensation
-how confidentiality will be protected
-assurance of voluntary participation
-permission to withdraw without penalty
-contact information if there are further questions
what is assent?
when minors are asked to participate a parent or guardian must sign off for them and the minor must also sign (the minor signing is assent) this occurs with informed consent in TCPS2
what is secondary use of data?
data that is being created and stored (by governments, businesses and researchers) as a result of our increased reliance on technology
how must researchers show concern for welfare?
attempt to minimize risks associated with participating in research while maximizing the benefits of that research to individual participants and to society (participants can choose if the benefits outweigh the risks)
how must researchers show justice?
treat people fairly
recruitment methods that offer participation to people from a diverse range of social groups
must be a scientific rationale to using age, gender or criteria to select participants (unethical to study a particular group of people to advance science if that group will not benefit from that research)
the Tuskegee Syphilis Study represents a high risk study that was conduced on individuals because they were powerless and marginalized within society (justice issue) explain what occurred in this study
399 african americans were not given medical treatment in order to track the long term effects of this disease
how does the TCPS2 deal with research involving indigenous people?
the research must engage and benefit the involved communities
what is a risk/ benefit analysis?
calculate potential risks and benefits that are likely to result
what do risks include in the risk/ benefit analysis?
physical harm
psychological stress (also contributes to concern for welfare)
losing privacy and confidentiality (important when studying sensitive topics such as SA, divorce, drug abuse. try to keep people anonymous)
how can researchers keep participants anonymous?
dont need specific information about their personal life
dont connect peoples identity with particular data (give them a code, so if the info does get out, the hacker wouldnt know whose is whose)
what is debriefing?
occurs after the completion of the study where researcher may deal with issues of deception, withholding information and potential harmful effects of participation
what are the two largest associations that promote the science of psychology through the nuremberg recommendations?
the american association (APA)
the american psychological society (APS)
what are the codes of ethics principles that the canadian psychological association (CPA) use?
respect the dignity of persons
responsible caring
integrity in relationships
responsibility to society
what does the respect for the dignity of persons principle emphasize?
moral rights
what are the key aspects of the first principle (respect for the dignity of persons)?
informed consent
privacy and confidentiality
what is informed consent?
participants must give consent regarding their participation in a study, normally in the form of a document
what does the informed consent form consist of?
general description of the research study
clearly states that no penalty will result if you choose not to participate or you want to withdraw at any time
how do children consent?
secured from a parent or legal guardian
how is privacy and confidentiality, how does CPA go about doing that?
only gather peoples information that is needed for the study and store the information so that the persons information is private
why is privacy and confidentiality so important?
to ensure that personally identifiable records (name, address) are kept only as long as necessary
why do canadian researchers who opt to do online research often prefer to use companies that are based in canada?
due to the united states patriot act
what is the united states partriot act?
an act that allows the government to access the records of internet service providers potentially putting the confidentiality of canadian participants at risk
what are researchers required to do to limit the potential of a breach of personal data to unauthorized parties?
implement safeguards such as data encryption
what does the second principle (responsible caring) mean?
leads psychologists to discern the potential harm and potential benefits of any given research project involving animals
what are the three key aspects of the second principle (responsible caring)?
general caring
competence and self knowledge
risk/ benefit analysis or ratio
what are the 4 things researchers must do in respect to general caring?
must protect and promote the welfare of participants
should avoid doing harm to participants
must accept responsibility for the consequences of their actions
must ensure that any knowledge gained is not misused, intentionally or otherwise
what does the key aspect “competence and self knowledge” mean?
psychologists should perform only those activities for which they have acquired competence
researchers should keep themselves current (with respect to a broad range of relevant knowledge, research methods and techniques)
what is the risk/ benefit analysis or ratio?
it asks the question “ is the study worth it?” to see if the benefits outweigh the risks (no mathematical formula for this)
deception should be considered when determining the risk/ benefit ratio, what is it?
the withholding of important information about the true purpose or methods in a study from the participants.
why is the information about the true purpose or methods in a study withheld (deception)?
the information is withheld because the researcher deems that the participants knowledge of this information would alter or influence his or her behavior
list some of the risks/ benefits that may result from the use of deception in a research study.
Will the results produced be interpretable? If the study is poorly designed and has little scientific merit,
researchers cannot justify exposing participants to undo risk.
Can any other low-risk procedures be instituted?
Has previous research already been done? If so, why expose participants to needless risk?
Do unique characteristics of certain participants put them at undue risk? May certain ethnic groups or
personality factors put some individuals at more risk?
why deception a dilemma for psychology?
Psychologists must seek methods that try to put participants at minimal risk. Minimal risk means that participation in an experiment does not place participants at any greater risk than what is normally expected in the course of their daily lives or during routine physical or psychological tests.
even if the risks are small, participants should still be debriefed
what are some guidelines for debriefing?
-if deception was necessary, explain how and why it was used and why it is not wrong in these circumstances
-dont rush through the debriefing session
-goal of the debriefing session is to return the participants back to the same mental and emotional state they were at the beginning of the experiment
-researcher should repeat the guarantees of confidentiality and anonymity that were made clear at the beginning of the experiment
-try to debrief immediately following the experiment (saying you will send an explanation of the results at a later date is not an effective debriefing strategy)
what does the third principle (integrity in relationships) mean?
psychologists are expected to be accurate and honest, straightforward and open, have maximal objectivity and minimal bias, and avoid conflicts of interest
what are the 2 key principles of principle 3?
accuracy and honesty
plagiarism
what does accuracy and honesty consist of?
researchers should not knowly participate in, condone or be associated with dishonesty, fraud or misrepresentation
researchers should ensure that they only take credit for the work and ideas that they have actually done or generated and give credit for work done by others
what is plagiarism?
presenting some elses ideas or work as ideas or works of your own
what are 3 main things to keep in mind to avoid plagiarism?
if you are discussing another persons work or idea, always give them credit
if you use exact words of another author use quotation marks and reference them (name, date, page)
if you are putting material into your own words just reference the author and put the date
what are 3 tips that help you become an effective paraphraser?
read the original material as many times as necessary until you completely understand its meaning
put the original aside, write down your paraphrase and then compare it with the original (if it is too similar, change it)
include a topic and reference with the paraphrase and a few words describing how you see the paraphrase fitting into your subject matter
what is paraphrasing?
reworking the ideas of a reference in your own mind and then presenting that material in a new form (if you have 3 or more consecutive words in a sentence that are the same as the original, you should consider revising your sentence)
what are two major responsibilities psychology has to society?
increase knowledge
promote the welfare of all life
what are the 4 key aspects of principle 4 (responsibility to society)?
participate in the development of knowledge and beneficial activities
participate in the continued growth of yourself and teh science of psychology
uphold the disciplines responsibility to society by reporting unethical behaviour
be sensitive to the current issues, needs and problems in society when determining the types of research questions to ask and when reporting the results of a particular study
how do researchers participate in the continued growth of yourself and the science of psychology?
by engaging in original research, transmitting current knowledge or using current knowledge to help others and advance society
why are animals used for research?
researcher can carefully control the environmental conditions, study the same animals over a long period and monitor their behaviour all the time
used to test the effects of drugs
used to test physiological and genetic mechanisms
what is the canadian council on animal care (CCAC) funded by?
purpose is to oversee the ethical use of animals in science in canada
sponsored by CIHR and NSERC
what is the animal care committee?
reviews animal research procedures and ensures that all regulations are followed (animal care training by all researchers and technicians involved in animal research)
committee is composed of at least one scientist (or teacher with experience in animal use), one institutional member who does not use animals, one experienced veterinarian, a community member and others
what are the three R’s that aim to minimize harm to animals?
replacement (replacing the use of animals with something else)
reduction (minimize the number of animals being used)
refinement (minimize pain and distress)
what are the 4 guidelines for using animals as participants?
justification of research
care and housing of animals
personnel
experimental procedures
what does justification of research consist of? in respect to using animals as participants
the research is expected to have good, interpretable results
what does the care and housing of animals mean? in respect to using animals as participants
the psychologist must be familiar with current laws and regulations that concern the acquisition, housing, care and disposal of research animals
what does personnel mean? in respect to using animals as participants
psychologists and their students must be trained and/ or supervised until sufficiently competent to carry out the responsibilities required for maintaining and handling of the animals
what does experimental procedures mean? in respect to using animals as participants
psychologists must minimize discomfort, illness and pain when devising methodologies (methods that require exposure to pain, stress and privation (lack of comfort) should only be performed if an acceptable alternative procedure is not available)
how do you dispose of animals?
humane manner
when can classroom demonstrations involving animals be used?
only when instructional objectives cannot be accomplished with videotapes or other methods
what 9 things must be included in an ethics form?
summary of project
research instruments
study subjects
informed consent
deception
feedback/ debriefing
risks and benefits
anonymity and confidentiality
compensation
what does the summary of the project consist of?
detailed but concise outline of the purpose and methodology of the study describing precisely the procedures in which subjects will be asked to participate
what does the research instruments section need to consist of?
copies of all materials (questionnaires, tests…) to be given to subjects and/ or third parties
what does the study subjects section need to consist of?
describe the number of subjects and how they will be recruited for this study (special characteristics of the subjects that require extra measures)
what does the informed consent section need to consist of?
copy of consent form if its in writing, if written consent is not obtained then indicate why not
describe how the nature of the study and subjects participation in the study will be explained to them before they agree to participate
describe how consent is to obtained from guardians of subjects from vulnerable populations (kids)
if essential, describe why subjects are not to be made aware of their records being consulted
what does the section of deception need to consist of?
(this section is only necessary if you MUST use deception)
provide detailed information on the extent and nature of deception and why the researcher must provide detailed information on the extent and nature of deception and why the research could not be conducted without it
what does the feedback/ debriefing section consist of?
describes the feedback that will be given to subjects about the research after they have completed their participation (how the feedback will be provided and by who) if feedback is not given explain why it is not planned
if deception is employed, debriefing is MANDATORY (describe in detail the nature of the post deception feedback and when and how it will be given
what is provided in the risks and benefits section?
risks to the subjects or to a third party (if yes, provide a description of the risks and the counterbalancing benefits of the proposed study, indicate the precautions taken by the researcher under these circumstances)
what is discussed in the anonymity and confidentiality section?
describe the procedures for preserving anonymity and confidentiality. if confidentiality is not an issue in this research, explain why
if confidential records will be consulted indicate what precautions will be taken to ensure subjects’ confidentiality (how is the data stored, when will the data be destroyed)
what is discussed in the compensation section?
discuss if subjects will be compensated for their participation
compensation may reasonably provide subjects with assistance to defray the costs associated with study participation
what are the two ways in which fraud is committed in science?
fabricating (making up) data
collecting real data but altering the numbers to fit the hypothesis
how is fraud detected?
by colleagues or students working with the researcher
why were Cyril Burt’s experiments examining the genetic basis of intelligence using identical twins now generally considered unethical?
The data is suspected to be fraudulent
what are three concrete practices that individual researchers can adopt if they want to help build a more honest and accurate science?
disclosure (keeps a record of exactly how the research was conducted)
preregistration of studies (posting a public statement of what your method and data analysis plan will be)
open data and materials (post files openly online so that other researchers can evaluate the study so they could reach out if you did something wrong)
