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H HB > UNIT 3 > Flashcards

UNIT 3 Flashcards

1
Q

State the function of the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

It Processes and coordinates sensory information

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2
Q

Name the structures which make up the CNS?

A

brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

State the function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

Carry information to and from the CNS

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4
Q

Name the structures which make up the PNS?

A

Nerves outside brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

Name the two branches of the PNS?

A

Somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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6
Q

Name the part of the brain which sends impulses along the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

medulla

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7
Q

List the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems on the body

A

Sympathetic:
increase :heart rate, breathing rate
Decrease: peristalsis and intestinal secretions

  • Parasympathetic:
    Increase: peristalsis and intestinal secretion

Decrease: heart rate and breathing rate

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8
Q

Explain the term antagonistic?

A

Have opposite actions/effects

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9
Q

Describe the role of sensory and motor neurons?

A
  • Sensory: take impulses from sense organs to CNS
  • Motor : take impulses from CNS to muscle and glands
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10
Q

Describe how the nervous system is divided into branches?

A

CNS and PNS

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11
Q

Identify converging, diverging and reverberating neural pathways?

A
  • Converging: Impulses from several neurons travel to one
    neuron
  • Diverging: Diverging:
    Impulses from one neuron travel to several
    neuron so affecting more than one destination
    at the same time.
  • Reverberating: neurons later in the pathway can link with earlier neurons which allows the impulse to travel through the pathway again
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12
Q

Name and identify the parts of a neuron? And their function?

A
  • Dendrites : receive impulses and send them to cell body
  • Cell body: Expresses proteins required
    for nerve transmission
    Contain nucleus and mitochondria for ATP
  • Axon:Carries impulses away from cell body towards synapse and the next neuron
  • Myelin sheath: insulates the axon and increases the speed of impulse conduction
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13
Q

Describe the movement of an impulse through a neuron?

A

An electrical nerve impulse travels along the axon. of the first neuron

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14
Q

Describe the process of myelination?

A

The process of forming myelin sheath around an axon

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15
Q

Explain why individuals under 2 years old are not as coordinated as older individuals?

A

myelination is not complete till they reach adolescense

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16
Q

Explain why multiple sclerosis can cause loss of coordination?

A

They cause the coordination loss by damaging the myelin sheath

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17
Q

State two functions of glial cells?

A

1- physically support neuron
2- produce myelin sheath

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18
Q

Name the point where neurons connect with other neurons or muscle fibres?

A

Synaptic cleft

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19
Q

Describe the role of neurotransmitters?

A

are chemical messengers that transfer signals across synapses between neurons

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20
Q

Identify the parts of a synapse?

A

Presynaptic neuron, synaptic cleft , postsynaptic membrane

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21
Q

Name the structures which store neurotransmitters?

A

Vesicles

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22
Q

Describe what happens to the vesicles upon arrival of an impulse?

A

They release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

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23
Q

Describe how neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic cleft?

A

Through diffusion

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24
Q

Name the structures which the neurotransmitters bind to?

A

Specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane

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25
Q

Describe the role of the receptors?

A

determine whether the signal is excitatory or inhibitory

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26
Q

State the term used to describe the minimum number of neurotransmitters required to transmit the impulse?

A

Stimuli Threshold

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27
Q

Describe two ways neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft?

A

By enzymes or reuptake into presynaptic neuron

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28
Q

Explain why neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft?

A

To prevent continuous stimulation of postsynaptic neuron

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29
Q

Describe the process of summation?

A

When multiple signals are added together to trigger a response in a postsynaptic neuron

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30
Q

Explain how convergent neural pathways can trigger an impulse through summation?

A

They combine signals from multiple neurons to one neuron to trigger an impulse through summation

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31
Q

Name the neurotransmitter involved in reducing the intensity of pain?

A

Endorphin

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32
Q

State when endorphin levels will increase and the feelings this will induce?

A

During stress and prolonged exercise , inducing feeling of pain relief and pleasure

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33
Q

Name the neurotransmitter which activates the reward pathway in the brain?

A

Dopamine

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34
Q

Describe a situation which would activate the reward pathway?

A

Food, pleasure activities , taking drugs

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35
Q

Compare the action of an agonist and an antagonist chemical?

A

Agonist mimic neurotransmitter enhancing their effect
WHEREAS
Antagonist block the action of neurotransmitters at a synapse

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36
Q

Explain how some drugs can cause an enhanced effect at a synapse?

A

They increase neurotransmitter release or block reuptake causing enhanced effects at synapse

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37
Q

List the different effects of recreational drugs?

A

Mood , perception and behaviour

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38
Q

Explain how drug addiction arises?

A

Antagonist block specific receptors increasing both number and sensitivity where the individual craves more of the drug

39
Q

Explain how drug tolerance develops?

A

Agonist stimulate specific receptors decreasing both the number and sensitivity where an individual must take more of dug to get an effect

40
Q

Describe the different roles of the cerebral cortex?

A

Centre of conscious thought, recall memories and alter behaviour

41
Q

List the main areas within the cerebral cortex?

A

Sensory
Motor
Association ( involve language processing , imagination , personality)

42
Q

Describe how the brain processes information for each side of the body?

A

Left hemisphere controls the right side and vice verse

43
Q

Explain how the information is transferred between the two hemispheres of the brain?

A

Information transferred between hemispheres through corpus callosum

44
Q

Describe how information passes through the different levels of memory?

A

Information transfer form sensory memory to short term memories to long term memory or is discarded

45
Q

State the memory span of the STM?

A

Can hold up to 9 items and last 30 seconds ish

46
Q

Explain why the STM is able to perform simple cognitive tasks?

A

for working model

47
Q

Explain how chunking information can improve STM?

A

By breaking large prices of information to several small peices

48
Q

Describe what is meant by the serial position effect?

A

Remembering the first and last items in a list better than items in the middle

49
Q

Explain why items at the beginning and end of a list are more easily remembered than items in the middle?

A

First items are remembered as there has been time for rehearsal into LTM

Last items as they have not yet been displaced from the STM by new information

50
Q

Describe how items can be maintained within the STM?

A

Through rehearsal, by repeating it again and again

51
Q

State two ways information can be lost from the STM?

A

Displacement
Decay

52
Q

State the capacity of the LTM?

A

Unlimited capacity and holds information for a long time

53
Q

Give examples of ways to improve encoding of information as memories in the LTM ?

A

Rehearsal
Organisation
Elaboration

54
Q

Explain how contextual cues help to retrieve memories?

A

They relate to the time and place when the information was initially encoded into LTM

55
Q

Give examples of different contextual cues used to aid retrieval of memories?

A

Scents, sound, emotions and location

56
Q

Explain why some organisms are described as pathogens?

A

They are bacteria , virus , fungi that causes disease

57
Q

Name the cells which form a physical barrier to invading pathogens and state where they
are found?

A

Epithelial cells

58
Q

Give examples of chemical secretions which are produced against invading pathogens?

A

Tears, saliva , mucus and stomach acid

59
Q

Name the chemical released by mast cells during the inflammatory response?

A

Histamine

60
Q

Describe the effect of histamine on arteries and capillaries?

A

Vasodilation and increased capillary permeability

61
Q

Describe how phagocytes and clotting elements accumulate at the site of infection?

A

Increased blood flow and secretion of cytokines

62
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis?

A

Recognise and engulf pathogens and destroyed by enzymes contained in lysosomes

63
Q

Name the structures which contain digestive enzymes inside phagocytes?

A

Lysosomes

64
Q

Describe the action of cytokines released by phagocytes?

A

Act as signals molecules to attract white blood cells to site of infection, enhance immune response

65
Q

Describe how the specific immune response is activated?

A

They are triggered by antigens

66
Q

Name the two types of lymphocytes?

A

B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes

67
Q

Explain why lymphocytes are specific?

A

They have one type of membrane which is specific to one antigen

68
Q

Describe how clonal population of identical lymphocytes are formed?

A

Antigens binding lead to repeated lymphocytes division

69
Q

Describe the role of T-lymphocytes in specific cellular defences?

A

destroy infected body cells by recognising antigens of the pathogen

70
Q

Describe the process of apoptosis?

A

1- T lymphocyte attaches onto infected cell
2- releases
proteins which diffuse into infected cell
3- causing Self-destructive enzymes cause cell death

71
Q

Describe the role of B-lymphocytes in specific cellular defences?

A

produce antibodies against antigens and this leads to the destruction of the pathogen

72
Q

Describe the effect of antibodies on pathogens?

A

They Become bound to antigen and inactivate the pathogen

73
Q

Describe how memory cells develop?

A

Some of the cloned B and T lymphocytes survive long-term

74
Q

Compare the primary and secondary response to the same antigen?

A

Secondary is faster , long lasting due to memory cell activation

75
Q

Explain how allergies develop?

A

when B lymphocytes respond to harmless antigens

76
Q

Explain why T-lymphocytes usually do not attack self-antigens?

A

to prevent autoimune disease

77
Q

Describe how autoimmune diseases develop?

A

when T lymphocytes fail to distiguish between self and non self antigens

78
Q

Give examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

Type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis,multiple scelosis

79
Q

Describe the effect of the human immunodeficiency virus on T-lymphocytes?

A

Attack and destroy T lymphocytes

80
Q

Explain how HIV can lead to the development of AIDS?

A

When it causes the reduction of t lymphocytes

81
Q

Explain why individuals with AIDS are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections?

A

They have weakened immune system

82
Q

Explain how memory cells can be created from vaccines?

A

as vaccination contains weakend , inactivated and dead pathogens

83
Q

Give examples of sources of antigens used in vaccines?

A

Dead pathogens, weak pathogens, inactivated pathogen toxins

84
Q

Explain why adjuvants are added to vaccines?

A

To enhance immune response

85
Q

Explain the importance of herd immunity in reducing the spread of disease?

A

Gives protections against infected individual

86
Q

Explain how herd immunity protects non-immune individuals?

A

They’re less likely to come in contact with infect individuals

87
Q

List the factors which affect the herd immunity threshold?

A

1- type of disease
2- effectiveness of vaccination
3- density of population

88
Q

Give examples of difficulties in establishing herd immunity in both developed and developing countries?

A

Developed: vaccinations being rejected

Developing: due to poverty

89
Q

Explain why memory cells are not effective against some pathogens?

A

Some pathogens change their antigens

90
Q

Explain why vaccines are subjected to clinical trials?

A

establish their safety and effectiveness before being
licensed for use.

91
Q

Describe how to reduce bias in the distribution of characteristics in a clinical trial?

A
  • Randomised: such as picking names out of a hat .
    Reduces bias such as age and gender
  • double blind: ither the subjects nor the researchers know which group subjects are in
    Prevents biased interpretation of the results
  • placebo control: One group of subjects receives the vaccine or drug while the second group receives a placebo-control
92
Q

Describe the role of a placebo in a clinical trial?

A

To see if the new drug works better than the Treatment with no active drug in it

93
Q

Explain the importance of having a large sample size when testing vaccines?

A

To reduce the experimental error

94
Q

Describe how error bars can be used to determine if a result is statistically significant?

A
  • If the error bars overlap- the results are not
    statistically significant
  • If the error bars do not overlap- the results are
    statistically significant

H HB (3 decks)

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