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AP Psych Exam Review > Unit 3 > Flashcards

Unit 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

sensation

A

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

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2
Q

sensory receptors

A

Nerve endings that respond to stimuli, and detect information after which the nervous system transmits this information to the brain.

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3
Q

perception

A

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

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4
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

The process that begins with individual pieces of data and works its way “up” to construct a theory or conclusion. This often occurs when we process things for which we have no prior knowledge.

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5
Q

Top-down processing

A

The process that constructs perceptions based on sensory experience and expectations. This occurs by drawing on prior knowledge.

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6
Q

Selective attention

A

The focussing of our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Through selective attention, our awareness focusses on a minute aspect of all that we experience.

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7
Q

Cocktail Party Effect

A

The ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others, as when one is at a cocktail party.

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8
Q

The Stroop Effect

A

The delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli. For example, the time it takes a participant to name the colour of ink in which a word is printed is longer for words that denote incongruent colour names than for neutral words or for words that denote a congruent colour.

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9
Q

inattentional blindness

A

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

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10
Q

inattentional deafness

A

The failure of unattended auditory stimuli to register in the consciousness.

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11
Q

change blindness

A

A phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer.

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12
Q

change deafness

A

A phenomenon of auditory perception occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer.

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13
Q

pop-out effect

A

One or more basic features will mark a stimulus as distinct from the other stimuli, hence allowing the target to be easily detected and identified regardless of the number of distractors.

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14
Q

choice blindness

A

The inability to detect a change between an object/image we have chosen and a similar object/image.

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15
Q

transduction

A

The conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

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16
Q

psychophysics

A

The study of the relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli - their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

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17
Q

absolute threshold

A

The minimum stimulation (stimulus energy) necessary to detect a particular stimulus (light, sound, pressure, taste, or odour) 50 percent of the time.

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18
Q

signal detection theory

A

The theory that predicts how and when we can detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation (noise). This theory assumes that there is no single absolute threshold, but rather that detection depends on one’s psychological state.

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19
Q

subliminal

A

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

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20
Q

priming

A

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

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21
Q

difference threshold (just noticeable difference- JND)

A

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (JND). The detectable difference increases with the size of the stimulus.

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22
Q

Weber’s Law

A

For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount). The exact percentage varies depending on the stimulus.

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23
Q

habituation

A

The tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.

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24
Q

dehabituation

A

The opposite of habituation, which is the reappearance of the initial response to an original stimulus once the stimulus changes.

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25
Q

sensory adaptation

A

A process by which constant, unchanging information from the sensory receptors is effectively ignored because the receptor cells themselves become less responsive to an unchanging stimulus and the receptors no longer send signals to the brain.

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26
Q

microsaccades (saccadic movements)

A

A constant movement of the eyes through tiny little vibrations.

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27
Q

Gustav Fechner

A

The founder of psychophysics. He studied the edge of sensory awareness which he referred to as absolute threshold.

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28
Q

Ernst Weber

A

Came up with the principle now known as Weber’s Law

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29
Q

perceptual set

A

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing over another. In other words, it is a set of mental tendencies or assumptions that affect, top-down, what we hear, taste, feel, and see.

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30
Q

perceptual schema

A

A schema is a mental model that provides a frame for interpreting information entering the mind through the senses or for activating an expectation of how a particular perceptual scene may look. They allow us to organize and allow us to interpret unfamiliar information.

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31
Q

context

A

Context refers to the situation or circumstances in which an event occurs.

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32
Q

context effect

A

Context effect is an aspect of psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one’s perception of a stimulus. The impact of context effects is considered to be part of top-down processing.

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33
Q

motivation

A

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behaviour.

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34
Q

emotion

A

Emotions are psychological states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.

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35
Q

extrasensory perception (ESP)

A

ESP is the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; it includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

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36
Q

telepathy

A

Telepathy is mind-to-mind communication

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37
Q

clairvoyance

A

Clairvoyance is perceiving remote events, such as a house on fire in another location.

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38
Q

precognition

A

Precognition is perceiving future events such as an unexpected death in the next month.

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39
Q

psychokinesis (telekinesis)

A

Psychokinesis (also known as telekinesis) is the idea of “mind over matter” such as being able to levitate a table.

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40
Q

parapsychology

A

Parapsychology is the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

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41
Q

wavelength

A

A wavelength is the distance between successive peaks in a wave.

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42
Q

frequency

A

Frequency is the number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time.

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43
Q

amplitude

A

The amplitude of a wavelength is its height.

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44
Q

hue

A

Hue is the dimension of colour that we experience - red green blue etc…. The hue is determined by the wavelength of light. The shorter wavelengths give the purple and blue end of the spectrum. The longer wavelengths give the red end of the spectrum.

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45
Q

intensity

A

Intensity is the amount of energy in a light wave, which influences what is perceived as brightness. The intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude.

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46
Q

cornea

A

The eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

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47
Q

pupil

A

The adjustable opening in the centre of the eye through which light enters.

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48
Q

iris

A

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the coloured portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

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49
Q

retina

A

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of visual information.

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50
Q

fovea centralis

A

A small depression in the retina of the eye where visual acuity is highest. The centre of the field of vision is focused in this region, where retinal cones are particularly concentrated.

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51
Q

optic nerve

A

It carries sensory nerve impulses from the more than one million ganglion cells of the retina toward the visual centres in the brain.

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52
Q

blind spot

A

A spot where there are no receptor cells because this is where the optic nerve is leaving the eye. However, we don’t see a black hole created by this blind spot because our brain automatically fills it in.

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53
Q

accommodation

A

The process of the lens changing its curvature and thickness in order for the lens to focus the light rays.

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54
Q

myopia

A

if the lens focusses the image on a point in front of the retina, one sees near objects but not distant objects. This is also known as nearsightedness.

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55
Q

rods

A

A type of retinal receptor cell that detects black, white, and grey, and is sensitive to movement. They are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. A human retina has about 120 million rods.

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56
Q

cones

A

A type of retinal receptor cell that are concentrated near the centre of the retina and function in daylight or well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to colour sensations. A human retina has about 6 million cones.

57
Q

bipolar cells

A

Bipolar cells are interneurons in the retina that transfer neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells.

58
Q

ganglion cells

A

Ganglion cells receive neural impulses in the retina from the bipolar cells. The axons of the ganglion cells bundle together to form the optic nerve.

59
Q

visual acuity

A

The degree of clarity, or sharpness, of visual perception. It is greatest when the visual image projects directly onto the fovea centralis.

60
Q

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

A

A theory of how humans perceive color. According to this theory, the human retina contains three different receptors for color (meaning each one is most sensitive to one color): one is most sensitive to red, one is most sensitive to green, and one is most sensitive to blue. These color receptors combine the colors to produce the perception of virtually any color. You notice that there are no receptors specific to orange, but by stimulating the right cones in the right way, orange color is produced.

61
Q

Thomas Young

A

A nineteenth century English scientist who contributed to our knowledge of vision. His work led in part to the Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory.

62
Q

Hermann von Helmholtz

A

A nineteenth century German scientist whose work led in part to the Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory.

63
Q

colour vision deficiency
(colour blindness)

A

Colour vision deficiency is the inability to distinguish certain shades of colour.

64
Q

Afterimage

A

Visual illusions in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus

65
Q

Opponent-Process Theory

A

This theory suggests that the way humans perceive colours is controlled by three opposing systems. We need four unique colours to characterize perception of colour: blue, yellow, red, and green. According to this theory, there are three opposing channels in our vision.

66
Q

Ewald Hering

A

A German physiologist whose work led to the Opponent-Process Theory of colour vision.

67
Q

David Hubel

A

Canadian neurophysiologist who won a Nobel prize for the co-discovery of feature detector cells in the brain

68
Q

Torsten Wiesel

A

Swedish neurophysiologist who won a Nobel prize for his co-discovery of feature detector cells in the brain.

69
Q

Supercell clusters

A

Supercell clusters are clusters of cells that respond to more complex patterns of visual information

70
Q

Fusiform Face area

A

Located in the temporal lobe it is believed to specialize in facial recognition

71
Q

Parallel processing

A

Information processing in which two or more sequence operations are carried out simultaneously by independent processors. A capacity for parallel processing in the human brain would account doe peoples apparent ability to carry on different cognitive functions at the same time

72
Q

Blindsight

A

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

73
Q

Gestalt

A

“Gestalt” is the German word for pattern or shape or form. When trying to make sense of the world around us, Gestalt psychology suggests we do not simply focus on every small component. Instead, our minds tend to perceive objects as part of a greater whole and elements of more complex systems

74
Q

Figure-ground relationship

A

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground, meaning background)

75
Q

Law of proximity

A

The tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping

76
Q

Law of similarity

A

The tendency to perceive things that look similar to being of the same grouping

77
Q

Law of closure

A

The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

78
Q

Law of Continuity

A

The tendency to see things as simply as possible in continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

79
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

A top-down process where objects are perceived as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) regardless of viewing angle, distance, or illumination

80
Q

Color Constancy

A

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

81
Q

Brightness Constancy

A

Brightness constancy is similar to color constancy in that it depends on context. We perceive an object as having a constant brightness even as its illumination varies. In other words brightness constancy depends on relative luminance

82
Q

Relative luminance

A

The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings

83
Q

Shape constancy

A

The tendency to perceive an object as having an unchanging size even if our distance from it varies

84
Q

Moon illusion

A

Moon illusion is an optical illusion in which the moon appears larger when it is closer to the horizon than when it is higher in the sky

85
Q

Depth Perception

A

The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the image that strikes the retina are two dimensional, this also allows us to judge distance

86
Q

Monocular cue

A

One way that we perceive depth in the world around us involving only using one eye

87
Q

Relative size

A

This monocular cue gives you the ability to measure how far away something is. It works by judging how big or small an object is and what it means in relation to other objects you have interacted with in the past

88
Q

Interposition (occlusion)

A

This monocular cue occurs when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view partly conceals the farther object, also called relative position

89
Q

Light and shadows

A

The way that light hits an object creates shades of light and dark. This tells your eyes where an object sits in relation to the light and to objects nearby. This cue can also tell you if something is upside down because the light source will hit the object differently so that it visually contrasts with other parts of your environment

90
Q

Texture Gradient

A

Objects that are closer to you will appear much more detailed and textured whereas objects that are further away will appear much finer and less detailed

91
Q

Binocular

A

One way we perceive depth in the world around us involves both eyes

92
Q

Convergence

A

This is the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets in order to focus on a single object. If the object is close, the convergence is pretty strong. If the object us far away, the convergence is much less

93
Q

Retinal disparity

A

This simply means that because the eyes are a few centimeters apart, they don’t exactly see the exact same thing. The brain interprets the images on the retinas to determine distance from the eyes. If the two images are very different, the objects must be pretty close. The retinal disparity is large. If the images are almost identical the retinal disparity is low and the objects are perceived as pretty far away

94
Q

Stobosonic movement

A

The perception of a rabid series of slightly varying images as continuous movement such as in an animated film

95
Q

Phi Phenomenon

A

When adjacent lights blink on and off quickly, they create the perception of movement

96
Q

motion parallax (relative
motion)

A

Motion parallax refers to the fact that objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer (or camera) than they would if they were at a greater distance.

97
Q

motion parallax (relative
motion)

A

Motion parallax refers to the fact that objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer (or camera) than they would if they were at a greater distance.

98
Q

perceptual adaptation

A

The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. Consider the example of getting a new pair of glasses.

99
Q

Audio Spectrum

A

The audio spectrum is the audible frequency range at which humans can hear and spans from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

100
Q

Pitch

A

Pitch is the dimension of sound that we experience. In other words, a high pitch is a high note and a low pitch is a low note. Pitch is determined by the frequency of sound waves. Short waves have a high frequency which creates a high pitch. Long waves have a low frequency which creates a low pitch.

101
Q

Intensity (volume)

A

The intensity or volume of a sound is determined by a sound wave’s amplitude. It is measured in decibels (dB). Zero decibels represent the absolute threshold of hearing. Every 10 decibels correspond to a tenfold increase in sound intensity.

102
Q

Outer ear

A

This is the visible portion of the ear that collects and directs sound waves through the ear. It includes the flap that we see on the side of our head called the pinna and the auditory canal that transports the sound waves to the eardrum.

103
Q

Middle ear

A

This is the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea. It contains three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup)

104
Q

Inner ear

A

The innermost part of the ear contains the cochlea, the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs

105
Q

Eardrum

A

Also called the tympanic membrane. A tight membrane that vibrates in when in contact with sound waves; it helps to amplify the sound waves as they lose strength traveling down the auditory canal

106
Q

Bones of the middle ear

A

hammer - a tiny bone that passes vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil. Anvil - a tiny bone that passes vibrations from the hammer to the stirrup. Stirrup (stapes) - a tiny bone that passes vibrations from the anvil to the oval window of the cochlea

107
Q

Cochlea

A

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

108
Q

Oval window

A

The membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the bones of the middle ear transmit vibrations

109
Q

basilar membrane

A

A membrane in the cochlea that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

110
Q

organ of Corti

A

A specialized structure that sits on the basilar membrane within the cochlea in the inner ear. It contains the hair cells (the sensory receptors for hearing) their nerve endings, and supporting cells.

111
Q

auditory hair cells
(stereocilia)

A

16,000 auditory hair cells organized in bundles in a cochlea. These cilia cells are extremely sensitive and work with extreme speed. The tip of a hair cell needs only to be deflected by the width of an atom in order to trigger a neural response.

112
Q

place theory

A

A theory that explains the pitch a person hears. In this theory, the pitch depends on where the hair cells that are stimulated are located on the basilar membrane. For example, if a person hears a high-pitched sound, all of the hair cells near the oval window will be stimulated, but if the sound is low-pitched, all of the hair cells that are stimulated are further away from the oval window.

113
Q

frequency theory

A

A theory that explains the pitch a person hears. In this theory, pitch is related to how fast the basilar membrane vibrates. The faster the membrane vibrates, the higher the pitch; the slower the membrane vibrates, the lower the pitch. This would mean that all of the auditory neurons would be firing at the same time.

114
Q

stereophonic hearing

A

Ears are placed on either side of the head enabling us to benefit from stereophonic, or three-dimensional hearing. Enables us to locate sound.

115
Q

conduction hearing loss

A

This type of hearing loss refers to problems with the mechanics of the outer or middle ear and means that sound vibrations cannot be passed from the eardrum to the cochlea.

116
Q

sensorineural hearing

A

This type of hearing loss is more common than conduction hearing loss. In this impairment, the problem lies either in the inner ear or in the auditory pathways or cortical areas of the brain.

117
Q

loss cochlear implant

A

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

118
Q

the four basic skins senses

A

pressure, warmth, cold, pain

119
Q

nociceptors

A

Sensory receptors located in our skin, muscles, and organs that detect hurtful or potentially hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals.

120
Q

gate-control theory

A

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals travelling up small nerve fibres and is closed by activity in larger fibres or by information coming from the brain.

121
Q

phantom limb sensation

A

The feeling of sensations in a limb that has been removed. The limb feels as though it is still attached to the body because the brain continues to get messages from nerves that used to “feel” for the missing limb.

122
Q

gustation

A

The sense of taste.

123
Q

the five sensations of taste

A

salty sweet sour bitter umami (savory)

124
Q

papillae

A

The tiny raised protrusions on the tongue that contain taste buds. The four types of papillae are filiform, fungiform, foliate, and circumvallate.

125
Q

what is “spicy”

A

Spicy is not a taste sensation. It is a sensation of pain and temperature.

126
Q

odorant molecules

A

Molecules in the air stimulate the olfactory receptors. The binding of the molecules to these receptors initiate an electrical signal that transmits to the olfactory bulbs and higher brain centers for processing of the olfactory information.

127
Q

Olfaction

A

The sense of smell

128
Q

Odorant Molecules

A

Molecules in the air stimulate the olfactory receptors. The binding of the molecules to these receptors initiate an electrical signal that transmits to the olfactory bulbs and higher brain centers for processing of the olfactory information.

129
Q

olfactory bulb

A

Structure that receives converging neural impulses from olfactory receptor cells and transmits this information to the olfactory cortex.

130
Q

proprioception

A

Our sense of body position.

131
Q

kinesthesia

A

Our sense of body movement.

132
Q

proprioceptors

A

Sensory receptors are located in muscles, tendons, and joints. They are capable of detecting the movement and position of the body through a stimulus produced within the body. They relay information to the brain when a body part is moving or its position relative to the rest of the body.

133
Q

vestibular sense

A

Our sense of balance

134
Q

semicircular canals

A

These are three canals located in the inner ear that can sense head movement. One canal senses the head nodding up and down, one canal senses the head shaking side to side, and one canal senses the head tilting left and right. These canals are filled with fluid and the movement of this fluid into another chamber triggers small hairs to trigger neural impulses that are sent to the cerebellum.

135
Q

semicircular canals

A

These are three canals located in the inner ear that can sense head movement. One canal senses the head nodding up and down, one canal senses the head shaking side to side, and one canal senses the head tilting left and right. These canals are filled with fluid and the movement of this fluid into another chamber triggers small hairs to trigger neural impulses that are sent to the cerebellum.

136
Q

otolith organs (utricle and saccule)

A

These are two structures that determine forward and backward movements and gravitational force. The utricle, which determines horizontal movements, and the saccule, which determines vertical movements are small fluid-filled sacs with crystals suspended in the fluid. Movement causes these crystals to move which vibrates the fluid, which then triggers hair cells to send neural responses to the cerebellum.

137
Q

sensory interaction

A

The principle that one sense may influence another.

138
Q

McGurk Effect

A

A perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to hearing a different sound.

139
Q

embedded cognition

A

Embodied cognition is the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

AP Psych Exam Review (4 decks)

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