Unit 2 Test Flashcards
1
Q
Memory
A
- Persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information
- Learn something, store it, pull it out when you need it
- Terms that you learn over school, that is a type of memory you create
- You also create memories of what you experience
- You also create memories by learning how to do something
- E.g. learning how to tie your shoes
2
Q
Sensory Memory
A
- We experience environmental input through our five senses
- Don’t truly experience on a daily basis
- When you pay attention to something, it makes it to your short-term memory
- When you don’t pay attention to something, you forget it
- The different types include iconic and echoic memories
- There are also other senses involved for the different types but they are not really well studied
3
Q
Iconic Memory
A
- Visual sensory memory
- Lasts for only 1 second
- If you don’t pay attention to something that happens, it’s gone in an instant
- George Sperling did an experiment testing this
4
Q
Echoic Memory
A
- Auditory sensory memory
- Lasts for 3 seconds
- When you need a couple seconds to process something you heard
- E.g. when someone asks you a question and you say “what?” before you process it and then you respond: this is an echoic memory
5
Q
Short Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory
A
- When you are consciously aware of something and process it, it is in your short term memory
- Current level of awareness/conscious thoughts
- E.g. if you are thinking about what time class ends right now, that is short-term memory
- What your mind is working with in that moment
- STM is temporary
- If you do nothing with it, then it will fade in about 10-30 secs
- Either forgotten or encoded in your long-term memory
- If you do nothing with it, then it will fade in about 10-30 secs
6
Q
Magical 7 +/- (5-9)
A
- Theory by George Miller
- You can hold 5-9 items in your STM
- 5 is the least, 7 is the average, 9 is the highest
7
Q
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
A
- Has the potential to be permanent
- Once information reaches LTM, it is possible to remember it for the rest of our life, but memory may fade or decay
- Brain’s storage is an unlimited capacity
8
Q
Types of LTM
A
Episodic, Semantic, Procedural, Prospective
9
Q
Episodic Memory
A
- Personal life experiences
- Tied with emotions - E.g. first day of class, family vacation, exciting/embarrassing moments
10
Q
Semantic Memory
A
- Factual/trivial knowledge memories
- E.g. the name of your favorite books, things you learn in school, remembering names/recognizing faces
11
Q
Procedural Memory
A
- Your “how-to” memories
- E.g. how to tie your shoes, how to drive a car, etc.
12
Q
Prospective Memory
A
- Future memories
- E.g. knowing that you will meet your friend tomorrow, knowing that Winter Break is next week, etc.
13
Q
Explicit LTM
A
- Declarative - Intentional memories
- Largely episodic & semantic memories
- Hippocampus is writing these memories down to remember for the future
- Simultaneously creating emotions as well
- This is why H.M. could not form these memories b/c his hippocampus was removed - Effortful processing
- Memories take effort and enhanced tricks to encode memories - E.g. studying for a test, remembering due dates for assignments
14
Q
Implicit LTM
A
- Nondeclarative - Unintentional memories that just sort of happen
- Processed by your cerebellum
- Largely procedural & prospective memories
- H.M. had these memories b/c his cerebellum still remained
- Automatic processing
- Requires attention, but just sort of happens automatically - E.g. remembering the location of your classes, remembering the lyrics to your favorite song
15
Q
Long-Term Potentiation
A
- When you learn something new, your neurons are firing and taking up all your energy
- The newer the task, the more your neurons are making connections
- E.g. playing a new version of a game that you’re an expert at
- When playing the old game, you’re an expert, so your neurons aren’t firing so much
- Your brain is working harder for the newer version b/c you need to learn how this version works
16
Q
Levels of Processing
A
- Deep vs Shallow Encoding
- Explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was thought about/processed
17
Q
Shallowly processed info
A
- Structural - Structure, design, makeup of something
- Phonemic - The way a word sounds
- E.g. Group 1 in the activity (only listened to pronunciation)
18
Q
Deeply processed info
A
- Semantic - Making connections using a story/real-life example to remember the meaning of something
- Much more effective when it comes to memory
- E.g. Group 2 in the activity (made a mental image which helped to remember the sentences)
19
Q
Chunking
A
- When a lot of information is put into bits and pieces, it becomes easier to remember
- E.g. remembering a phone number - you chunk certain numbers together so they are easier to remember
20
Q
Mnemonic Devices
A
- Pattern used to remember something
- E.g. PEMDAS
21
Q
Rehearsal
A
- Doing something over and over again
- Rehearsing something
22
Q
Elaborative Rehearsal
A
- Making connections by connecting to existing knowledge
- E.g. when you’re studying psychology and you connect some terms to the real word to remember them better
23
Q
Method of Loci
A
- Using location to prompt your memory
- E.g. if you’re in guard, then you remember what you’re supposed to do based on your location on the field
24
Q
Hierarchies
A
- Taking a topic and narrowing it down more and more
- Getting more and more specific with organizing information
- E.g. organizing these notes in a specific way
25
Q
Categories
A
- Organizing things by category
- E.g. Organizing shopping list by aisle
26
Q
Distributed Practice
A
- Practicing in smaller amounts of times more frequently
- E.g. studying for a test next week 30 mins a day
- More effective
27
Q
Spacing Effect
A
- When you space things out, your memory can handle it better
- This is why distributed practice is better than massed practice
28
Q
Massed Practice
A
- Practicing a lot in a short period of time
- E.g. cramming for three hours a night before for a test
29
Q
Memory Consolidation
A
- Stabilizing new memories into long-term memory
- The highlights of your day is stored in your long-term memory rather than every single detail
30
Q
Working Memory Model
A
- Elaborates short-term memory box in the Multi-Store model
- Parts include phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, central executive
31
Q
Phonological Loop
A
- Responsible for processing sound-based information
- Articulatory Control Process
- Inner voice
- E.g. when you’re reading and hear a voice in your head
- Phonological Sound
- Rehearsing something over and over again to remember it
32
Q
Visuospatial Sketchpad
A
- Visual and spatial information (location)
- The ability to picture things in your mind
33
Q
Episodic Buffer
A
- Integrates information from other components to use it in short term memory; creates a unified memory
34
Q
Central Executive
A
- In control of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
- Decides what we pay attention to
35
Q
Encoding
A
- Process of getting memories stored from STM to LTM
- Getting information in for future use
36
Q
Serial Positioning Effect
A
- Order in which information is presented matters
- Affects your ability to remember information
- Includes primacy effect and recency effect
37
Q
Primacy Effect (LTM)
A
- We remember things that are at the beginning of a list better than other
- Tendency to remember something that is the first)
- E.g. first day of school, first ice cream I had, etc.
38
Q
Recency Effect (STM)
A
- Remembering something that was the most recent thing
- We remember things that are at the end of a list because it is the most recent thing we heard
- E.g. if someone asks you how school has been, then you’ll most likely respond based on what happens in the past couple of weeks
39
Q
Encoding Failure
A
- When you don’t get something from STM to LTM
- E.g. when you listen to something, but you don’t really process it, so it doesn’t go to your LTM
40
Q
Retrieval
A
- Getting things out of LTM and into STM
- E.g. when someone asks when your birthday is, you have to retrieve that info from LTM into STM to answer the question
41
Q
Recall
A
- Pulling items from LTM with no prompting
- E.g. short answer questions on a test
42
Q
Recognition
A
- Having options to retrieve LTM
- E.g. multiple choice questions on a test
43
Q
Retrieval Cues
A
- Stimulus that prompts memories (words, visual, smell, etc.)
- E.g. using Rudolph song to remember the names of the reindeers
- E.g. when you see someone and you know them from somewhere, but you just can’t remember
44
Q
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
A
- When you know something, but can’t put it in words
- It’s right there, but you just can’t get to it
- It’s on the tip of your tongue
45
Q
Testing Effect
A
- Process of having to recall information on your own
- E.g. when someone tests you on something, you have to pull out that information on your own
46
Q
Context-Dependent Memories
A
- An environmental factor that influences your memory
- Where I am, who I’m with, etc.
- E.g. you need to get something from a different room, but when you get there and you don’t remember, however, when you go back to the room you were in, you remember what you needed to get
47
Q
Semantic Network Theory
A
- Referring to interconnectedness of your memories
- Your brain works as a spider web; messy jumble of memories where one thing connects to another and it continues
- E.g. when you’re having a conversation with someone and a couple minutes later you wonder how you got to that topic
48
Q
Flashbulb Memories
A
- Big emotionally provoking memories that are more societal/cultural memories
- Memories that have to do with a lot of people
- E.g. COVID-19 pandemic b/c it affected a lot of people
49
Q
Mood Congruent Memory
A
- Your mood influences the type of memories you remember
- E.g. if it is a snow day and you’re happy, you will most likely remember memories that are associated with snow days and it will be happy
50
Q
State Dependent Memory
A
- Your state of consciousness influences the type of memories you remember
- E.g. if you’re sleepy and remember to do something in the morning, but the day goes by and when you’re sleepy again, you remember that you didn’t do the task you were supposed to do
- Sleepy state helps you remember the task
51
Q
Forgetting
A
- Ways that we lose or cannot access long term memories
- Memories that make it into LTM, but we don’t use it, something interferes with it, or we just forget it
52
Q
Ebbinghaus Curve
A
- Mathematical rate of forgetting over time
- Curve that shows how quickly you forget something - We forget a lot of information very quickly/immediately
- E.g. if I was given a final exam for a class I took last year, I would not do well because I probably forgot a lot of information from the class - However, we hold some information for much longer
- This proves that distributed practice is effective because you forget less of the information and remember more of it
53
Q
Decay
A
- Use it or lose it
- When you use info, it is more likely to stay in your memory
- When you don’t use info, it decays over time and you forget
- This is why relearning is easier because you already have some knowledge of it
54
Q
Interference
A
- When one memory blocks out another memory
- Proactive and Retroactive are the two types
55
Q
Proactive Interference
A
- Older information blocks out new information
- E.g. during the New year, you will most likely write the previous year’s date than the new date until you get used to it
56
Q
Retroactive Interference
A
- New information blocks out old information
- E.g. when you’ve learned new songs, but someone asks you to perform an old song, it will be hard b/c you most likely forgot a lot of the song (think of Narayanam Bhaje!)
57
Q
Amnesia
A
- Memory loss for different reasons
Types are Retrograde, Anterograde, Source, Infantile
58
Q
Retrograde Amnesia
A
- Inability to retrieve memories from before “something” (accident, brain trauma, etc.)
- Could be temporary/permanent
- E.g. when someone gets into an accident and has severe brain trauma so they don’t remember anything before the accident
59
Q
Anterograde Amnesia
A
- Inability to form new memories
- Can be temporary/permanent
- Usually from damage to the hippocampus
- What writes these memories
60
Q
Source Amnesia
A
- Having memories/certain information, but not knowing where it came from or how you learned it
61
Q
Infantile Amnesia
A
- Inability to recall memories from infancy b/c your hippocampus is not fully developed
62
Q
Alzheimer’s Disease
A
- A gradual, irreversible brain disorder
- Largest symptom is memory loss
- Associated with a lack of ACh (Acetylcholine)
63
Q
Repression
A
- Unconscious blocking of memories
- Believed to be a defense to “protect” the conscious mind
- Usually happens around traumatic experiences and things that are emotionally difficult to think about
64
Q
Elizabeth Loftus
A
- Did “Lost in the Shopping Mall” experiment
- Tells subjects stories of them being lost in a shopping mall
- Subjects start to form memories in their mind, but these stories are not even real
- Misinformation Effect and Imagination Inflation
- Most famous experiment is that “Car Crash” experiment
- Subjects will watch 15-30 seconds of the same car crash
- Everyone is asked a series of different questions
- Questions are very similar but one word is changed which changes the responses of the subjects in different groups
65
Q
Constructive Memories
A
- Forming and developing memories for the first time
- Several factors can influence how you form memories
- E.g. mood, who you’re with, where you are, etc.
66
Q
Reconstructive Memories
A
- Remembering memories in a different way/perspective
- E.g. if you recall a memory that was happy, you could remember it in a sad way in that moment
67
Q
Misinformation Effect
A
- Being told wrong information has the ability to affect the way your memory is stored
68
Q
Imagination Inflation
A
- When you create a mental picture, you feel more confident about the correctness of your memory
- E.g. if you lose something and imagine where it could be, you’ll feel more confident that you will find it
- However, you can be wrong and the item could possibly not be there
69
Q
Intelligence
A
- Intelligence is a commonly used term, but an extremely difficult concept to define
- A lot of theories regarding intelligence - Typically defined as the ability to gather and use information in productive ways
70
Q
Intelligence Tests
A
Stanford-Binet and WAIS are largely used
71
Q
Stanford-Binet Test
A
- One of the most reliable and widely given cognitive tests
- Contains five factors: fluid intelligence, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory
- Intelligence testing started with Alfred Binet
- Developed the concept of Mental Age
- Advancing to higher grades based on what tasks you can perform and your cognitive abilities, rather than your age
- Developed the concept of Mental Age
72
Q
Lewis Terman
A
- Took the test that Alfred Binet came up with and modified it
- Came up with the formula: IQ = (Mental Age/Physical Age) x 100
- If IQ is 100, then you are at the right intelligence level
- If IQ is lower than 100, then you are mentally behind
- If IQ is higher than 100, then you are mentally ahead
73
Q
Standardization
A
- Standardized tests result in a normal, bell curve (IQ average = 100)
- Standard deviation for IQ is usually 15
- Being two standard deviations behind the mean (an IQ below 70) means the person likely has an intellectual disability
- Will be hard to thrive in an intellectual setting - Being two standard deviations above the mean (an IQ above 132) means the person is extremely intelligent
74
Q
WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
A
- David Wechsler
- Came from Romania and had to take the IQ test to be let in to the US
- He passed, but realized that not everyone was able to excel in this test and believed it was wrong
- Developed another IQ test to minimize bias
75
Q
Charles Spearman
A
- Came up with a lot of theories for intelligence
- Came up with g factor
- There is one, general intelligence that reflects an individual’s overall intelligence
76
Q
Metacognition
A
Thinking about the thought process
77
Q
Algorithms
A
- Using a step-by-step solution, trying every possible component
-Realistically takes a while but you are more likely to get the answer
78
Q
Heuristic
A
- A shortcut you take to solve something faster
- Takes a shorter time but there are some problems with this method
79
Q
Availability Heuristic
A
- Judging a situation based on what readily comes to your mind
- E.g. if you see someone with a hood on in a dark alley, you’re more likely to leave the place b/c you have evaluated the situation as dangerous
80
Q
Representative Heuristic
A
- Judging situations based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in mind
- E.g. if you see a short, slim man who reads poetry, you’re more likely to assume that the man is an English professor
- This leads to errors so it is faulty
81
Q
Framing
A
- The way information is presented can affect our perception of something
- Often a marketing technique
- E.g. when a cereal says reduced fat, but does not say higher sugar
82
Q
Priming
A
- When the environment is influencing how you are making sense of something
- E.g. if you’ve heard a movie is great, that eventually will lead you to watch the movie and you are more likely to think it is great because you’ve been influenced
83
Q
Mental Set
A
- Approaching things based on what is familiar and what has been done before
- E.g. if you pull a door that says push, it shows that you’re so used to pulling a door open that you basically ignore the sign
84
Q
Gambler’s Fallacy
A
- Mistaken belief that a random event is more likely to occur because of a series of events prior
- E.g. a mother might she’s having a girl more than a boy b/c the midwife has delivered only boys so far, but it’s a 50-50 chance
85
Q
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
A
- Reluctance to abandon a strategy or action because you have invested too much even when abandoning is the best option
- E.g. if you’re at the movie theater and you’re watching a bad movie, you’re more likely to stay and finish the movie because you don’t want to waste the money that you paid for the tickets
86
Q
Creativity
A
- Assessed based on two things
- Originality: Is it new and original?
- Appropriateness: Does it fit the situation? Is it applicable?
87
Q
Convergent Thinking
A
- To come together
- E.g. if you come up with a project topic, but your teacher doesn’t approve it, you’re not sure what to do next because you cannot come up with another topic
88
Q
Divergent Thinking
A
- E.g. If you have so many ideas that you can’t choose just one
- Creativity is most likely associated with this type of thinking
89
Q
Functional Fixedness
A
- If something has a purpose, you have trouble seeing it with another purpose
- E.g. a paperclip can be used in many ways, but we usually only see it to hold papers together
90
Q
Howard Gardner
A
- Came up with the multiple intelligences theory and cited savant syndrome
91
Q
Linguistic Intelligence
A
- Language, people who have a way with words
92
Q
Logical-mathematical intelligence
A
Reasoning
93
Q
Spatial Intelligence
A
Visual arts
94
Q
Musical Intelligence
A
Vocalists, instruments
95
Q
Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence
A
- Athletes, Dancers
96
Q
Interpersonal Intelligence
A
Ability to read people
97
Q
Intrapersonal Intelligence
A
Understanding yourself
98
Q
Naturalist Intelligence
A
Understanding nature and enjoying it
99
Q
Existential Intelligence
A
- Those who are philosophical, wondering about the point of life
100
Q
Savant Syndrome
A
- An individual who is classified as intellectually disabled, but has a profound ability with a certain type of intelligence
- Disproves the g factor
101
Q
Reliability
A
- Consistency, something must yield consistent results
- E.g. when you take the SAT, your score should be around the same and not all over the place (the amount of preparation should be the same though)
102
Q
Split-Half Reliability
A
- When you split something in half, they both must be reliable
- E.g. if I get a 100 question test and get an 80, and the teacher splits the odd and even questions and finds the averages, I should be getting around the same for both averages
103
Q
Test-Retest Reliability
A
- Getting consistent results when taking the same test across time
- E.g. if I take a psych test on Monday and get an 80, I should get around the same score if I take the test again on Friday
- This is why when I take the MBTI test again and again, I get different results b/c it has low reliability
104
Q
Validity
A
- Accuracy, measures what it is supposed to measure
- E.g. if the AP Psych exam was asking physics questions, then it does not have validity
- A test can be reliable but not valid
- A test cannot be valid, but not reliable
- Needs to be both
105
Q
Predictive Validity
A
- To what extent a result predicts something of a future
- E.g. if you take a career test and it doesn’t give a job that you want to do, then it has a low predictive validity
106
Q
Construct Validity
A
- The components of a test are broken up across a variety of things
- E.g. if you can throw a ball, but can’t catch it, then you won’t really be a great softball player, so you have a low construct validity
- E.g. if you only see intelligence questions on the AP exam, then it had low construct validity because it is not an accurate measure of testing your knowledge
107
Q
Flynn Effect
A
- Shows that IQ scores have continued to increase over time
- However, reverse Flynn Effect would be a decrease of IQ scores in recent years
108
Q
Aptitude Tests
A
- Results that are supposed to predict someone’s future success
109
Q
Achievement Tests
A
- Results are supposed to measure current skills/knowledge
110
Q
Stereotype Threat
A
- When a person feels that there is a risk/threat of confirming a negative stereotype about their race/gender/themselves
- E.g. blondes’ intellect
111
Q
Stereotype Life
A
- When a person experiences a boost b/c they are not members of a group experiencing negative stereotypes
- E.g. men in math, non-blondes’ intellect
112
Q
Fixed Mindset
A
- Thinking you’re born with a natural, fixed capability
- E.g. saying that you’re naturally bad at Computer Science
113
Q
Growth Mindset
A
- Believing that you can improve and grow
- A good environment is also important to have this mindset b/c not everyone has equal access to education, good teachers, etc.
- E.g. If you’re bad at math, you are trying your best to improve rather than say you’re naturally bad at it
