UNIT 2: SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH

Question 1

Social Identity Theory

Answer 1

social identity: a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s)
the in group will discriminate against the outgroup to enhance self image
the groups that we belong to are important for pride and self esteem
positive distinctiveness: show favoritism for our in-group and potentially discriminate against the out-group
social identification: process of adopting norms of the group to fit in
social categorization: process of classifying people based on perceived group memberships
social comparison: we increase our self esteem by comparing ingroup vs outgroup
positive distinctiveness: we only see the positive traits of our ingroup
permeability: ability to move between groups

Question 2

Studies to talk about SIT

Answer 2

Tajfel et al
Chen et al

Question 3

Tajfel et al

Answer 3

Tajfel et al
Aim:
Laboratory observation
Social identities are based on in-groups and out-groups
Procedure:
Boys allocated into groups based on if they liked a painting or not (Klee or Kandinsky)- random allocation. Then they were asked to give points to their group, and to the other group, where the numbers would add up to 15. So if a boy gave their team 8 points, the other team would receive 7. The points did not mean anything. Then, they were asked to reward points under a different system. If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give a higher profit to the out-group.
If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points for the other group.If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would give only 1 point to the other team.
Findings:
Boys allocated more money to their own group even though the groups were meaningless
Application to theory:
in-groups are seen as more positive than out-groups and favoritism is more common in in-groups
People will feel favoritism toward their own group even if they do not have any pre-existing prejudices against the opposite group.
Evaluating Tajfel et al:
strengths
High level of control: Confounding variables were minimized.
The procedure is clear, the test is easily replicated
limitations
This theory does not encompass the entirety of who someone is.
The sample was made by opportunity and was only composed of boys with similar ages and backgrounds: low population validity and sampling bias
Very artificial setting and behavior: low ecological validity
There may have been some demand characteristics.

Question 4

Chen et al

Answer 4

Chen et al
Aim:
Purposive sampling technique
Experiment conducted online
Investigate how culture can affect decision making.
Procedure:
The participants were shown a photo collage that would make one of their cultures more salient: either Singaporean or American
They were then faced with a decision in an online shopping scenario: wait for 5 days for the book to come or pay extra to get the book to come early.
asked to list politicians from their country
Findings:
When the participants were presented with the “singaporean” collage, they decided to wait for 5 days and listed Singaporean politicians, whereas when they were presented with the “american” college they chose to pay extra to get the book in shorter amount of time, and listed american politicians
Application to theory:
People are shaped by which group they belong to, and sometimes one particular identity becomes salient, which means more prominent.
strengths
Naturalistic study, online shopping is a phenomenon that happens outside of experimental contexts.
Very standardized, could be very easily replicated.
limitations
The fact that the study was conducted in Singapore may have been a confounding variable.
Conducted online, difficult to control all the variables.

Question 5

Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 5

socialization: process of becoming a member of a social group, learning all the norms that make you a part of that group
primary socialization: parents and close group members
secondary socialization: what we learn from the wider society
social learning can happen both directly (we perform the task) or indirectly (we see someone else do it)
social cognitive theory suggests that behavior is learned from the environment through modeling and reinforcement
modeling: learning through the observation of other people → imitation if it leads to desirable consequences
through vicarious reinforcement
four processes of learning behavior (ARRM)
attention, observers must pay attention to the modeled behavior
retention: observes must be able to remember the features of the behavior
reproduction: observers must be able to physically/mentally reproduce the behavior
motivation: there must be motivation for replication to occur (desirable consequences)
behavior must be reinforced through reward or punishment
self efficacy→ the belief that you can learn
there must also be a similarity between the observer and the model for it to work

Question 6

Studies to talk about SCT

Answer 6

Bandura
Joy et al

Question 7

Joy et al

Answer 7

Aim:
Longitudinal natural experiment
Sample: children from three small Canadian towns who had had no prior exposure to television
The impact of television on children’s aggressive behaviors
Procedure:
Observation of playgrounds and levels of aggression in children. Then, television was introduced into these three small Canadian towns. The researchers came back and observed the playgrounds again and measured levels of aggression.
Findings:
Levels of violence increased after the introduction of the television in the households. Males were found to be more aggressive than females. Television, being new, also brought arousal which increased levels of violence.
Application to theory:
Children may learn behaviors by observing them: from others or from television. They will then replicate these behaviors in their own environments.
strengths
Naturalistic experiment - high ecological validity
limitations
But also low internal validity - hard to control variables
Small sample size
Difficult to generalize
temporal validity

Question 8

Bandura

Answer 8

Aim:
The aim of this study was to demonstrate how children can learn violent behaviors from adults, if they are passive witnesses, through Social Cognitive Theory. He predicted that children exposed to aggressive behavior will then reproduce it. Another prediction was that the reproduction would be enhanced if the model and the child are of the same sex.

Procedure:
the sample was composed of 36 boys and 36 girls from ages of 37 to 69 months. (3 to 5 year old) They used one male adult and one female adult to represent the models.
However, the aggression of the children was already previously tested by observing them in a naturalistic setting. They were then placed in groups where the other children had similar levels of aggression. → matched pairs design
The children were divided into two groups, by sex. The boys or girls then observed different types of models: an aggressive behavior with a model of the same sex, an aggressive behavior with a model of a different sex, and then a passive model who was of the opposite sex or the same sex. This design covered all the different possibilities.
The children were tested individually, in order to eliminate the confounding variables of testing multiple children at once. They were brought into an observation room which was modelled as a game room. The adult then left the room and went to play with the Bobo doll. In the passive model, the model did not touch the Bobo doll and played with the other toys that were present. In the aggressive model the model presented both physical and verbal violence toward the doll. After 10 minutes, the adult returned and brought the child to another room. The child was then brought to another game room with various toys. The experimenter stayed in the room, which makes this experiment an overt observation, while the child was in the room for a total of 20 minutes.

→ observation through modeling
→ the overt observation was to demonstrate whether the children showed retention of the behaviors

Findings:
the children who observed the aggressive model made more aggressive acts than the children who observed the passive model. Boys made more aggressive acts than girls, and they also demonstrated that they thought that aggressive behaviors were not appropriate for women while they were observing the female aggressive model. This can tell us more about how we learn gender norms through enculturation. the boys in the aggressive conditions showed more aggression If the model was male than if the model was female. The girls in the aggressive conditions also showed more physical aggression if the model was male but more verbal aggression if the model was female

→ shows how identifying with the model can increase the effectiveness of social cognitive theory
→ shows how we can learn behaviors through observation

Strengths: The design covers all the possibilities of behavior and the sex of the model.
The variables are highly controlled and all the possibilities are explored: high internal validity

Limitations: However, there were 6 children per group, which means that the groups were pretty small. This doesn’t eliminate the possibility that some of the children in the groups were maybe normally aggressive.
Small sample size, and they were all children from people working at Stanford University, which makes it difficult to generalize from such a sample.
Ethical consideration: the children were exposed to violent behaviors, which may bring them some psychological stress or even physical harm in the future. This study does not show whether aggression is learned or whether it is innate.
Artificial environment: low ecological validity

Question 9

sterotypes

Answer 9

stereotypes: a cognitive representation of a social group that helps simplify the social world and allows assumptions to be made based on limited information
type of schema that is applied to all members of a group
system or categorization, way to simplify the world, we can predict the behavior of others
false predictions
acquired indirectly, not from personal experience
schemas that help us understand the world
can be positive or negative
tend to be very general
prone to confirmation bias
can lead to memory distortion
prejudice: when we make a judgment about individuals with very little information about them except their group membership, usually negative
discrimination: when a behavior is based on stereotyping and prejudice

Question 10

formation of sterotypes

Answer 10

the origin of stereotype can be due to 4 different phenomenon
SIT, we assume everyone in the out group is the same
conformity: we follow the norms even if they discriminate
illusory correlations: we see correlations where there are none
confirmation bias: we stop gathering information once we find some that confirms what we already know
grain of truth hypothesis: experiences are generalized and passed onto groups, as a result of an experience shared with an individual from that group that we stereotype

Question 11

two studies for formation of sterotypes

Answer 11

park and rothbart
hilliard and liben

Question 12

park and rothbart

Answer 12

Aim:
Girls on a college campus that were part of a sorority. Convenience sample: University of Oregon
90 participants, 3 from each sorority
To demonstrate if the members of the sorority would demonstrate the out-group homogeneity effect
Procedure:
The data was gathered using questionnaires. They were asked to rank their own sorority and an out-group sorority on ten dimensions.
Strictness of house rules and regulations
Studiousness
How well they dressed
How much they studied
How physically attractive they were
How much they helped others
How sexually active they were
Economic status
Group cohesiveness
How often they were asked out on dates
They were ranked on a 7 point scale
They were also asked to rank how similar the outgroup were, on a 9 point scale.
Findings:
The girls in all three groups viewed their own groups as being more diverse and dissimilar as the other girls were. They were demonstrating the outgroup homogeneity effect.
The girls also showed group bias
Application to theory:
The outgroup homogeneity effect that is linked to SIT can help us explain one of the possibilities for the origins of stereotypes. In group bias that was demonstrated through SIT is also a way of explaining stereotypes.
strengths
Large amount of data collected through the questionnaire
Scale that can be standardized and reproduced
limitations
Can the outgroup homogeneity effect explain all stereotypes?
This is not very generalizable
Experiment conducted over 30 years ago. Temporal validity?

Question 13

hilliard and liben

Answer 13

Aim:
2 preschools
57 US children ranging from 3 years to 5 years, equal number of male and female students.
To determine how social category salience may play a role in the development of stereotypes and intergroup behavior in elementary school children.
Procedure:
Pre-test/post-test design. Each child completed a gender attitude test to measure “gender flexibility”. They were shown pictures of activities or occupations, and for each asked if boys, girls, or both should perform this activity. 22 culturally masculine occupations, 20 culturally feminine and 24 neutral. A second measure was taken by observing their play to determine to what extent they played with same sex, or opposite sex peers.
Then, the two schools were appointed under two conditions: one where the teacher would make a clear distinction between genders (high salience) and then teachers were given no instructions (low salience), this was the control group.
Findings:
After two weeks of high gender salience, there was a significant decrease in the number of “both”, meaning that the children had more gender stereotypes. In the control group, the statistics stay the same, however in the other group, the children played less with the opposite sex, the “outgroup”.
After the study the children participated in a debriefing program that tried to counteract those effects.
Application to theory:
Gender stereotypes can be created and reinforced
They are influenced by the environment, and can tied back to SIT
Evaluating Hilliard and Liben:
strengths
Field experiment, high ecological validity.
Easily replicable, standardized.
limitations
Low control, low internal validity.
Sampling bias: in the US preschools are not free
Middle to upper class children
The preschool had no gender norms
May not be generalizable to other schools
Does not indicate a cause and effect relationship
Some possibility of undue stress, it may be impossible to reverse the effects that were created during the study

Question 14

effect of stereotypes + 2 studies to use

Answer 14

stereotype threat: situation in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their own social groups → “spotlight anxiety” that might undermine experience
stereotypes can also affect our memory
memory distortion, we only remember it if it fits within our stereotypes
Martin & Halverston
Steele and Aronson

Question 15

Martin & Halverston

Answer 15

Aim:
wanted to investigate how schemas about oneself (stereotypes about yourself) play a role in how children understand and learn about gender roles.
The sample was made up of 48 children (24 males and 24 females) aged 5 - 6 years old. All were enrolled in local kindergartens.

Procedure:
Children were given a test to assess their level of gender stereotyping prior to the experiment.
Given 16 pictures, the researchers showed the children pictures of males and females in activities that were either in line with gender role schemas or inconsistent with gender role schemas (a girl holding a doll vs a girl holding a hammer)
They were not told that they would have to remember the images.
A week later, the children were asked to remember what they had seen in the pictures.
Were asked about 24 pictures, 16 they had seen and 8 they had not seen, to test for bias

Findings:
For pictures with female actors, those activities consistent with gender stereotypes were more often remembered than inconsistent activities, whereas for pictures with male actors, those activities inconsistent with the stereotype were remembered better.
Shows what we may think about what is “allowed” as a male
Children were more confident and demonstrated less distortion of memory when the stories were consistent with gender schema.
This supports the theory that stereotypes affect both the encoding and retrieval of information.
Evaluating Martin & Halverston
Strengths:
The study is highly standardized and can be replicated to determine its level of reliability.
Limitations:
The task has low ecological validity as the task is very artificial and the study is highly controlled.
The study may not reflect how children process information about gender in the real world.
there is an assumption made that information is actively pursued by children and that their behaviour develops as a result of schema development

Question 16

Steele and Aronson

Answer 16

Aim:
Convenience sample: 76 male and female, black and white undergraduate students from Stanford.
The goal was to see how stereotype threats affect the performance of African Americans during a test.
Procedure:
Two independent variables: the race of the participants and the test description. They were given a test of verbal ability similar to the SATs. Two conditions: diagnose intellectual ability or problem solving skills.
Findings:
The African American students performed worse than white students when they were told that the test would measure their intelligence. However, when they were told that the test was for their problems solving skills, they performed better and obtained similar results to white participants.
Application to theory:
This study shows the effect that stereotype threat may have on an individual. A member of a group, especially of a minority group may associate the stereotype associated with their group on themselves, even if it is not true. This can be tied back to self efficacy.
strengths
Highly standardized, limited bias.
limitations
Sample was made of Stanford University students, difficult to generalize. Maybe levels of stress could have affected the performances and the results may not be tied to stereotype threat.

Question 17

Cultural Dimensions

Answer 17

cultural dimensions are differences in mental programming that are due to difference in cultures
individualism vs collectivism
power distance index
how less powerful members of a group accept the unequal distribution of power
how societies tolerate inequalities
high PDI score→ high tolerance for inequalities
masculinity vs femininity
achievement, autonomy, competition vs caring, compassion, cooperation
uncertainty avoidance index
how comfortable with ambiguity, with an uncertain future
high score→ intolerance for unconventional, less risk taking
indulgence vs restraint
low score→ more retrained in terms of personal gratification
long term vs short term orientation
low score→ more traditional/conservative

Question 18

2 studies for cultural dimensions

Answer 18

Berry et al
Kulkofsky

Question 19

Kulkofsky

Answer 19

Aim:
Research method:
Qualitative study - survey/questionnaire
Sampling method: 274 “middle class” participants sampled from China, Germany, Turkey, The United Kingdom and the United States of America.
To investigate whether there was a difference between the rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic and individualistic cultures, operationalised by a structured memory questionnaire.
Flashbulb memories: vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and emotional event, often including such details as where the individual was or what he or she was doing at the time of the event.
Procedure:
The participants were first tasked to recall as many memories as they can of public events that have occurred in their lifetime (at least one year prior to the date), within 5 minutes.

The researchers collected this data and used it to create a ‘memory questionnaire’ - the participants were asked five questions about how they learned about the event that mirrored the original questionnaire used by Brown & Kulik (1977).
Questions:
Where were you when you first learned of the event?
What time of day was it?
How did you learn about it?
What were you doing at the time that you learned about it?
Whom were you with?

Then, they were tasked to answer questions about the personal significance the event had for them.
Questions:
How nationally or internationally important was the event?
How personally important was the event?
How surprising was the event?
How many times have you talked about the event since it happened?

Note that: the survey and instructions were crafted in English then translated into the respective languages, then back-translated (translated by another translator into the original language, English) by bilingual research assistants.
Findings:
Due to the fact that an individual’s own experiences is de-emphasised in Chinese contexts, there would be less rehearsal of a triggering event compared to participants from other cultures, and therefore a lower chance of developing a flashbulb memory.
It was also found that national importance was equally linked to the formation of flashbulb memories across cultures.
Application to theory:
characteristics of which influence personal identity. Responsibilities and loyalty to the social group are more valued than the likes of individualistic cultures. The difference in these dimensions can explain why individualistic cultures were able to form flashbulb memories that were vivid and telling of their personal significance to the experience, rather than collectivist cultures who were not.
strengths
Bilingual research assistants specific to respective cultures/languages administered the test and questionnaires to avoid interviewer effects. Participants were hence more likely to recall their memories since they were responded to in their native language.
The integration of back-translation in the questionnaires ensures there is no confounding variable to that respect; this increases the credibility of the study.
limitations
Although participants come from their respective culture, they do not necessarily represent their culture’s predominant dimensions - which brings the possibility of ecological fallacy.
The study had an etic approach (general, non-structural and objective) which does not account for other cultural factors that could have affected the self-reported memories.
Due to the task of recalling memories of events that have occurred in the past, participants could experience post traumatic stress disorder or stress to various extents if they recall traumatic events, a form of mental harm.

Question 20

Culture and behavior

Answer 20

common rules that regulate interactions and behaviors in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group
collective mental programming
surface culture
food
clothes
holidays
deep culture
morals
behavior
can create conflict
perception of time
norms are rules specific groups use for stating what is seen as appropriate/inappropriate behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes

Question 21

2 studies for culture and behavior

Answer 21

Chen et al
Berry et al

Question 22

Enculturation

Answer 22

The process by which people learn the necessary and appropriate skills and norms in the context of their cultures, the way they learn to be part of the group
enculturation is a constant process of learning
behaviors
thinking
there is also gender enculturation, how do we learn our gender
difficult to experiment and measure gender enculturation

Question 23

2 studies for enculturation

Answer 23

wood
greenfield

Question 24

wood

Answer 24

A sample of 48 children (24 boys and 24 girls, age 24 - 72 months)
Matched pair design: the adults were matched for age, educational level and occupation.
Quasi experiment
Naturalistic observations
The purpose of this study was to examine gender role enculturation as a result of parenting and toy selection.
Procedure:
The children played with either their own mother/father, a mother/father of another child, and a man/woman who was not a parent.
They had a one on one play session with the adults at the preschool or in their home.
Each child had a total of three play sessions.
Half of the girls played with their mother, other mother or non-mother; the other half played with their father, other father or non-father. The boys were the same. Each play session lasted fifteen minutes.
15 toys were arranged in a straight line in the room - with five stereotypically boy toys (e.g. a dump truck, a basketball, a Fisher Price gas station), five stereotypically girl toys (e.g. a kitchen set, a baby doll and a doll house) and five gender neutral toys (blocks, a stuffed teddy bear and PlayDoh.)
During the play session, the amount of time children and adults played with gender-specific toys was recorded. After the session, the adults were given a “gender sorting task” in which they were asked to categorize each toy as a masculine, feminine or neutral toy.
Findings:
The gender-sorting task showed that adults did not agree with traditional “expert” categorizations of some of the toys, which suggests a shift in the perceived function of some traditionally stereotyped toys. However, regardless of how parents sorted toys into categories, when playing with boys, most time was spent with masculine toys. With girls, on the other hand, there was greater flexibility in the categories of toys with which they played.
Application to theory:
Gender stereotypes are learned early in childhood and they are transmitted from adults to children. This study also shows us how recently there has been a shift in perspective about gender roles in our society.
strengths
Naturalistic observations: high ecological validity, the children were in their own homes or their preschools, which are places where they are comfortable
Standardized observation: easily replicable and transferable to other samples
limitations
Naturalistic observation: difficult to control all the confounding variables (low internal validity)
Demand characteristics: overt observation
It is believed that children develop gender role identities by age 4. These children are all younger so should not already have predefined preferences for certain “gendered” toys.
The study was done in Canada, which makes the sample WEIRD.
May be difficult to generalize to other cultures.

Question 25

Acculturation

Answer 25

how we can adapt to a new culture, a result of the interactions with other cultures
assimilation: accept the new culture, become accepted
separation: focus on keeping your own culture and avoiding contact with the new culture
integration: holding on to your own aspects but accepting some from the other culture
marginalization: neither keeping nor learning a culture
acculturative stress: psychological shock of adapting to a new culture “culture shock”
reverse culture shock: when people return to their home culture after spending time out of it - disorientation
acculturation gaps: differences in understandings and values between parents and children as they go through acculturation

Question 26

2 studies for acculturation

Answer 26

lueck and wilson
miranda and matheny

Question 27

miranda and matheny

Answer 27

Aim:
197 Spanish speaking immigrants to the USA
47% Mexican ancestry, 34% Central American, 19% South American
The experimental method was a questionnaire
The aim was to see what factors would decrease the level of acculturative stress in Latino immigrants to the USA.
Procedure:
The participants all filled a questionnaire which tested their levels of acculturative stress since coming to live in the USA. They answered questions about family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress and coping strategies.
Findings:
They found that these elements helped people acculturate more successfully:
Proficiency in native language
Effective coping skills
Strong family structure
The amount of time spent in the new country
Application to theory:
This study supports Berry’s model who proposed that acculturative stress is influenced by multiplied factors: protective factors that may influence the extent to which an individual acculturates and the effect this will have on mental health
Interacting with the dominant culture while still maintaining one’s own culture
strengths
Sample was diverse and relevant to the study’s aim.
A questionnaire can bring a large amount of rich qualitative data
Both ethic and emic
limitations
A questionnaire means that there were no follow up questions possible as in interviews, and no guarantee of an honest response (demand characteristics/social desirability)
This doesn’t account for the status of the participants before their immigration
Confirmation bias: the questionnaire might have had some leading question bias
Some sensitive subjects were discussed.
This could lead the participants to recall very negative experience and maybe bring them undue psychological stress
Other than that there seems to be no other ethical considerations

Question 28

Globalisation and Culture

Answer 28

globalization affects all aspects of culture and how it affects us
globalization: a powerful force comprising various dimensions including the economic, political, sociocultural, technological and environmental.
How do exchanges influence attitudes, identities and behaviors
the pros of globalization:
expanded trade
advances in technology
flow of information
connected to the world
medical advances
global social identity
identity confusion: difficulty to integrate oneself into a single identity as one tries to determine one’s own value and place in society
delocalization: when one has a strong global identity and disregards local cultures
cons of globalization:
cultural dominance
colonization
slavery and indenture
migration/war
globalization can change
gender roles
attitudes towards marriage and sexuality
secularism
attitudes towards privacy
increased consumerism
global identity: the identity one has on a global scale, consists of shared interests, practices and values across international borders
local identity: the identity one identifies with personally in their own community/culture
bi cultural identity: people who have both a global and a local identity
the good
greater access to a wider variety of in groups
we can have as many identities as there are groups
the bad:
reinforces us vs them, discrimimation, stereotypes
people may feel that their own cultures are being devalued or attacked
people may not feel bicultural, but instead excluded from both
third culture individual: people who have spent a significant portion of their childhood in a culture outside of their parent’s original culture, or from where their family originates

Question 29

2 studies for globalization and culture

Answer 29

ogihara and uchida
fail et al

Question 30

fail et al

Answer 30

Aim:
Multi case studies
Postal questionnaires and in depth interviews
The purpose was to examine the lives of a group of 11 former international school students who all attended an international school between 20 and 50 years ago.
Procedure:
The data was used to examine some common factors between these 11 students.
Questionnaires and interviews. They were asked about their experiences in the schools they attended and the countries they lived in.
Findings:
Some participants observed that they felt marginal to the mainstream and outsiders in the countries in which they were living. All claimed that they had no real sense of belonging in the communities in which they were living.
On the other hand, there was evidence that participants used their multicultural identities to their advantage. They reported having a multiple sense of belonging in different places. They believed they had an ability to adjust and fit in and enjoy the advantages of being “a part and yet apart”
Application to theory:
There are both negative and positive aspects to being a third culture individual. Difficulty to acquire a sense of belonging or a confused sense of identity. Other individuals can also truly feel at home and have multiple cultural identities.
Evaluation
Strengths:
in-depth data
method triangulation
case studies allow for lots of data to be collected
high ecological validity
limitations:
low generalisability
some possibility of demand characteristics
temporal validity
quasi-experiment, no manipulated IV

Question 31

Berry et al

Answer 31

Aim:
People from Baffin Island and Sierra Leone, purposive sampling.
How cultures can affect our behavior and decision making.
Procedure:
There was a sheet with nine lines on it. One line, the reference line, was at the top, and there were eight lines of
different lengths beneath it. They were instructed to identify which of the eight lines was the same length as the one at the top. Participants wrote their answers on a piece of paper. The researchers gave wrong answers on purpose.
Findings:
Temne people showed higher levels of conformity compared with Inuit. Traditional societies had higher levels of conformity.
Application to theory:
Culture and the group we belong to can determine our ways of thinking and our behaviors..
Evaluating Berry et al:
strengths
Very standardized procedure, easy to replicate.
limitations
Conducted 50 years ago. How have traditional societies changed since then? Not a naturalistic setting. The results of such research can lead to stereotyping about cultural groups.

Question 32

evaluate social identity theory

Answer 32

Good way of
understanding human behavior, i.e. ethnocentrism, favoritism, conformity, serotyping.
Assumes intergroup conflict is not required for discrimination to
occur (Tajfel, 1970)
Established + of ingroup by establishing the – of the out-group.
Describes, but does not accurately predict
human behavior.
Why is our personal identity stronger than our group identity at times?
It fails to take into account the environment
Cultural expectations
Rewards
Social constraints (poverty)

Question 33

Berry et al

Answer 33

Aim:
People from Baffin Island and Sierra Leone, purposive sampling.
How cultures can affect our behavior and decision making.
Procedure:
There was a sheet with nine lines on it. One line, the reference line, was at the top, and there were eight lines of
different lengths beneath it. They were instructed to identify which of the eight lines was the same length as the one at the top. Participants wrote their answers on a piece of paper. The researchers gave wrong answers on purpose.
Findings:
Temne people showed higher levels of conformity compared with Inuit. Traditional societies had higher levels of conformity.
Application to theory:
Culture and the group we belong to can determine our ways of thinking and our behaviors..

Evaluating Berry et al:
strengths
Very standardized procedure, easy to replicate.
limitations
Conducted 50 years ago. How have traditional societies changed since then? Not a naturalistic setting. The results of such research can lead to stereotyping about cultural groups.

Question 34

Abrams et al

Answer 34

Aim:
The aim of the study was to determine if in-group identity would affect one’s willingness to conform.
Lab experiment - researcher manipulates variables

Procedure:
Independent measures design, 4 groups, manipulates 2 different independent variables
One independent variable was whether the confederates were from an in-group or an out-group.
The second independent variable was whether the participant’s responses were public or private.
50 undergraduate students were the participants, and they were introduced as either the in group or the outgroup. They were instructed not to talk to each other.
the participants were shown a stimulus line, and then three other lines - one of which was the same length as the stimulus line. The task was to identify which of the three lines matched the stimulus line.
There were 18 trials, in 9 the confederates gave unanimous correct answers, and unanimous wrong answers in 9 other trials.

Findings:
In the trials where the wrong answer was given, 77% of participants agreed with that wrong answer
This shows that…
The results seem to indicate that social categorization can play a key role in one’s decision to conform publicly.

Evaluating Abrams et al:
Strengths:
The manipulation of the independent variable and the high level of control in the experiment allows us to see a causal relationship between group membership and the dependent variable - the rate of conformity to an incorrect response.

Limitations:
The situation in which the participants found themselves was highly artificial.
The study has low ecological validity and may not predict what would happen in a naturalistic situation.
There are ethical concerns about the use of deception.
The study was made up of university students, so the results may be difficult to generalise.
The study was done in an individualistic society. It is culturally biassed.

Question 35

ogihara and uchida

Answer 35

Ogihara & Uchida (2014)
Aim:
114 students from two universities, one in Japan and one in the USA. The research method was a questionnaire.
Aim: to investigate how a change in values might be influencing the subjective well-being of young Japanese students.
Procedure:
They used the questionnaires to measure individualism, how many close friends they had, happiness, life satisfaction, and physical and psychological emotional states.
Findings:
A negative correlation was found between individualism in Japanese students and their happiness.
They were unable to make friends due to the individualistic nature of their environment (influenced by the west). This correlation was not found in American students.
Application to theory:
The spread of western values through globalization could have a negative effect on people who have grown up in more collectivist cultures. This might be accounted for as “culture shock”. This is an example of how globalization can cause higher levels of acculturative stress.

Evaluating Ogihara and Uchidal:
strengths
Sample is purposive and is appropriate to the research.
Questionnaires help collect a large amount of qualitative information.
limitations
Questionnaires: no possibility for follow up questions as well as a possibility of the participants lying, social desirability bias.
Only look at Japan, low generalizability.
Are the correlations weak or strong?
The study only focuses on college students, would this be different on people of other ages?

Question 36

conformity + 2 studies to use

Answer 36

abrams et al
berry et al
conformity: tendency for people to adapt their behaviors, thoughts, and/or feels to particular people, groups(s) or social standards
two key factors for conformity
informative social influence: the need for certainty
normative social influence: the need for acceptance and approval
other factors
culture
groupthink
risky shift ( we take more risks when other people do)
minority influence
types of conformity:
group attractiveness
group unanimity
public vs private response
nature of the task

Question 37

greenfield

Answer 37

Aim:
Mayan mothers and daughters in Mexico
Longitudinal study: Greenfield’s research started in the 1960’s and she has continued to visit the community for over 40 years
Naturalistic observations through a camera and interviews
14 mother-daughter pairs in 1969-1970.
Inspired by a previous study conducted by Vygotsky.
Aimed to explore how children learned the cultural skill of weaving. This skill has been transmitted from one generation to the next for many generations.
Procedure:
Many naturalistic observations through videotape and interviews were conducted on the community.
Not only is the skill of weaving transmitted, but also many values and behaviors appropriate to the community.
This is done through enculturation.
Findings:
When interviewed, the mothers denied consciously ‘teaching’ their daughters but were observed to continually assess progress, providing sensitive, verbal direction as needed, intervening less often as the girls improved to the point of weaving independently. It was concluded that this high level of adult-child interaction was in keeping with the cultural value of maintaining traditions.
Application to theory:
This is a form of enculturation called “apprenticeship”
The act of weaving has a socio cultural experience on the community
The importance of listening to the authoritative figure (the mother), contributing to family and the role of women in the Mayan culture. All of these elements are learned through enculturation.
Evaluating Greenfield:
strengths
Greenfiel’s emic approach increases the relevance of her rich qualitative data. As participant observers, she and her daughters dressed as and lived within the community during the study. The length allowed her to form relationships with the women and therefore their levels of honesty in their responses. The data that she collected could be used to study another culture.
The interviews were conducted in their native language, and they were able to fully express themselves.
High ecological validity
limitations
The interpretation of the transcripts may be subject to researcher bias; it’s possible that the social aspects of weaving were exaggerated as the researchers were aware of the collectivist nature of Mayan culture at that time.
Overt observation: the mothers might have been more attentive to their daughters, knowing that they were being observed.
Only 14 participants within a small community: difficult generalization

Question 38

lueck and wilson

Answer 38

Aim:
2095 Asian Americans who were recruited as part of a larger NLAAS survey
Face to face interviews with a computer software that would speak in their language
to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrant and Asian Americans
Procedure:
Semi structured interview. They were either face to face or online. The interviewers were of similar cultural background as the participants. The interviews measured the levels of:
Acculturative stress
Impact of language proficiency
Language preference
Discrimination
Social networks
Family cohesion
Socioeconomic status
Example of questions used by the interviewers:
1. Do you find it hard interacting with others because of difficulties you have with the English language
2. How often do people treat you unfairly because of your ethnicity?
3. We share similar values and beliefs as a family
4. In general, would you say you have/your family living here has more money than you need, just enough for your needs, or not enough to meet your needs?
5. If you had to make the decision today, would you still move to the US?
Findings:
1433 (70%) were found to experience acculturative stress
Bilinguals had lowered acculturative stress: connections can be formed
The preference for speaking english is an indicator of high acculturative stress
Negative treatment (xenophobia, racism, discrimination) leads to high levels of acculturative stress
Those who were economically satisfied had lower acculturative stress
Application to theory:
Adapting to other cultures is not an easy process and it is not a static process either
It takes time to adapt to a new culture
There are recurrent factors that come forward in affecting acculturation, in a positive or a negative way
Illustrates acculturation according to Berry’s model
one’s original identity should be balanced with the task of getting involved with the foreign cultural group
strengths
Provides rich and detailed qualitative information
Can provide insight for further research
Sample is relevant for the purpose of the study
High ecological validity, as interviews are a pretty natural setting
The ethnic connections between the interviewers and the participants can make the participants feel more comfortable and open up more on their experience
limitations
These results are only generalizable to the Asian American population
There is a possibility of researcher bias
Difficult to replicate
It is time consuming, as it takes a long time to interview that many participants
Some sensitive subjects were discussed, such as xenophobia and racism
This could lead the participants to recall very negative experience and maybe bring them undue psychological stress
Other than that there seems to be no other ethical considerations