PSYCH PAPER 3 Flashcards
What are the ethical considerations that must be kept in mind when carrying out research?
informed consent
confidentiality
right to withdraw
no undue stress or harm
deception
debrief
Opportunity sample
Selective participants who are most easily available/accessible to the researcher
Time and cost effective
biased
self-selected sample/volunteer sample
participants are recruited on a voluntary basis, usually through advertising or word-of-mouth, and they self-select into the study
useful when the researcher has limited access to the population or when participants must meet certain criteria to be eligible for the study
May be biased
snowball sample
Participants are recruited through referrals by other participants of the study
used when the researcher is studying a hard-to-reach population, such as individuals with a stigmatized condition or those with limited access to resources
random sampling
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Most unbiased method, since participants are chosen at random, and everyone has equal chance
stratified sampling
a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population
purposive sampling
Participants are selected based on a specific criteria or characteristic
Aims to be representative of the population being studied
Cannot be generalized to wider population, since everyone has one shared particular something
quota sample
A sample deliberately constructed to reflect several of the major characteristics of a given population
theoretical sample
In qualitative research, a sample that helps the researcher understand or formulate a concept or interpretation.
laboratory experiment
Manipulation of one or more independent variables to investigate their effect on one or more dependent variable, which controlling other variables
Can help to establish a cause and effect relationship
Usually has a control condition + the IV conditions to establish comparisons
field experiment
Independent variables are still being manipulated by the researcher
Random assignment to conditions
Conducted in the natural setting where the behavior/phenomenon occurs
natural experiment
The experimenter cannot manipulate any variables
The independent variable already exists
The environment itself could be controlled
Non random assignment of participants
quasi experiment
Participants are based depending on a particular characteristics
Usually involves purposive sampling
Comparison of groups, usually a control group is used
Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions
No control of the IV
correlational study
Non experimental, we are analyzing the relationship between two variables
Use of data
Cannot establish a cause and effect relationship
case study
a detailed analysis over time of an area of interest (a case) to produce context-dependent knowledge; ex. an in-depth study of an individual, organisation, etc.
not a singular method but data is collected using method triangulation. uses different perspectives, collects rich data
case studies are a flexible approach, they can help to generate more research or more theories
potential risk for researcher bias, low generalisability because they are so specific
interviews
A researcher has a discussion with the participant one on one
Good way to obtain qualitative informations
More personal than a survey or a questionnaire or survey
questions, their wordings, and their order of administration are determined in advance
naturalistic observations
Observation of a phenomenon/behavior where it naturally/originally occurs
Can be covert or overt
Usually qualitative data is collected
triangulation
use of multiple methods or sources of data to study a particular phenomenon or research question
Increase validity and reliability
observation
the action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to gain information.
overt observation
Participants know they are being observed
Covert observation
observation in which the observer’s presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed
structured interview
a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
semi-structured interview
Pre-prepared questions (everyone gets the same) that might be open ended
Can have space for follow up questions
Production of rich qualitative data
unstructured interview
Flexible and open type of interview, with space for spontaneity
The questions and the order in which theta re presented is not set
Interviewers can ask follow up questions based on the participant’s responses
Open ended
focus group
Small group of people brought together to answer questions in a moderated environment
Prompts of conversation shed light on the area of study
Usually bring together people based on a particular shared characteristic they have
questionnaire/survey
Every participant has the same stimulus
Collects self reported data, be it quantitative or qualitative
Can help to have a large sample, efficient way to investigate a lot of people
descriptive study
a research method that involves observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of the behavior. Variables are approached separately
independent measures
experimental design where separate participants take part in each of the conditions
repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
matched pairs design
A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.
double blind
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
experiment
a research method in which the researcher manipulates (IV) and controls certain variables (CV) to observe the effects on other variables (DV)
can create a cause and effect relationship-> internal validity, easily replicated
low external validity
single blind study
study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group
what is informed consent?
Explicit and voluntary agreement of the individual
after they have been provided with information about the study or treatment (nature, purpose, risks and benefits)
Written or oral
what is deception?
Intentional misleading of the participants about the nature of the study
prevents participants from altering their behavior in response to knowledge of the study’s true purpose
Is sometimes necessary
what is debriefing?
Provides participants with information about the purpose of the study, addressing concerns/negative effects after the study has been completed
Ensure that participants understand what was done and why
Address misconceptions or misunderstandings
Important when deception was involved for the purpose of a study
what is the right to withdrawal?
Participants can withdraw from the study at any time, without penalty or consequences
Participants have the autonomy to make their own decisions
what is confidentiality?
Protect privacy of individuals who participate in research or receive clinical services
No information can be disclosed to unauthorized individuals
No use of personal names
Videotapes and recordings kept safe
No identifiable or personal information used in any psychological reports/publication
what is protection from harm?
Protection from any type of harm, any situation where someone would potentially feel uncomfortable, mental or physical
what are confounding variables?
Confounding variables in psychological research refer to variables that are not the main focus of a study but can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables being studied
Can lead to misleading conclusions if they are not taken into account or controlled
what is population validity?
the extent to which findings from a study can be generalized to the broader population from which the sample was drawn
what is cross cultural validity?
the extent to which research findings and psychological concepts can be applied across different cultural contexts
what is ecological validity?
the extent to which research findings and psychological concepts can be applied across different ecological settings (transfer from lab to the real world)
what is construct validity?
Are we measuring what we are supposed to be measuring?
what is maturation?
Participants change over the course of the study
what is regression to the mean?
a group of participants is selected based on extreme scores on a particular variable
When the group is tested again at a later time, their scores on the variable tend to move closer to the mean or average score for the population
what is experimental mortality?
Participants dropping out from the study over time
what are demand characteristics?
cues that might indicate the research objectives to participants
Participants can change their behavior
what is establishing a rapport?
building a positive and trusting relationship between the researcher and the participant(s) in a study
Crucial, so that participants are comfortable enough to actually participate in the study and share their data
what is iterative questioning?
asking follow-up questions to a participant’s initial response in order to clarify, expand, or deepen
what is reflexivity?
the process of reflecting on how the researcher’s own values, biases, and assumptions may influence the research process and the interpretation of data
Makes sure that the findings are valid and reliable
what is sample to population generalisation?
making inferences about a larger population based on data collected from a smaller sample
Using data from the sample to draw conclusions about the wider population from which the sample was drawn
what is case to case generalisation?
making inferences about a specific case based on data collected from one or more other cases. This involves using the findings from one particular case to draw conclusions or make predictions about other cases that share similar characteristics or feature
Usually comes from a case study
Sometimes not applicable, the case is too specific
what is theoretical generalisation?
applying the findings of a study to a broader theoretical framework or model
Not always straightforward
Testing theoretical models basically
what is acquiescence in participant bias?
participants have a tendency to agree or acquiesce with statements or questions, regardless of their actual beliefs or attitudes. This bias can be a result of social desirability bias or a desire to please the researcher or conform to societal norms
what is social desirability?
participants respond in a way that they believe will be viewed positively by others, rather than providing an accurate or truthful response
what is dominant respondent effect?
one or a few participants in a group dominate the discussion or influence the responses of others (occurs in focus groups)
what is sensitivity?
when participants in a study become aware of the aims or hypotheses of the study and modify their responses or behaviors accordingly
what is confirmation bias?
when researchers seek out, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while discounting or ignoring information that contradicts them
what is leading question bias?
a question or statement is worded in a way that suggests a particular response or leads the participant to a certain answer
what is question order bias?
when the order in which questions are presented to participants influences their responses to subsequent questions
May cause the participant to not answer in a way that would be truthful to them
what is sampling bias?
when the participants or sample selected for a study are not representative of the population being studied
what is biased reporting?
when researchers selectively report or emphasize certain results or findings in their published articles or reports, while ignoring or downplaying others
