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Mammalian Physiology II > Unit 2 Sensory and Integrative Nervous System > Flashcards

Unit 2 Sensory and Integrative Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

Transduction

A

the conversion of stimulus energy into an electrical signal

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2
Q

Adaptation

A

decreased sensitivity to continuous stimuli

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3
Q

tonic receptors

A

adapt slowly if at all; pain is sensed with tonic receptors; when the stimulus is applied, the receptor potential is on; when the stimulus is removed, the recereceptor potential is off

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4
Q

phasic receptors

A

adapt quickly; touch is sensed with phasic receptors; when the stimulus is applied, the receptor potential signals at the beginning; when the stimulus is removed, the receptor potential signals at the

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5
Q

Modality-

A

correctly interpreting electrical signals in the brain; what is perceived has to do with the part of the brain that is stimulated; the brain knows what is sensed based on the location of the signal

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6
Q

Intensity-

A

stronger stimuli elicit stronger responses

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7
Q

frequency coding-

A

more frequent action potentials on a given sensory neuron

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8
Q

population coding-

A

more receptors activated/more sensory neurons recruited

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9
Q

exteroreceptors-

A

sense the external environment

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10
Q

enteroreceptors-

A

sense the internal environment

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11
Q

proprioreceptors-

A

sense the relationship between self and the environment

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12
Q

photoreceptors-

A

detect light

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13
Q

chemoreceptors-

A

detect chemicals

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14
Q

mechanoreceptors-

A

detect pressure, movement, sound to name a few

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15
Q

thermoreceptors-

A

detect temperature

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16
Q

cutaneous senses-

A

detect touch/pressure, cold, warmth, pain

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17
Q

visceral senses-

A

sense the internal environment; chemicals, pain, temperature, pressure

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18
Q

special senses-

A

vision, smell, taste, hearing, rotational/linear acceleration (balance)

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19
Q

Cutaneous Senses

A

Touch, pain, cold, and warmth are sensed with naked nerve endings. All are histologically identical but physiologically distinct.

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20
Q

naked nerve ending-

A

can be positioned between skin cells or wrapped around the base of hairs

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21
Q

expanded tips on nerve endings-

A

Ruffini endings, Merkel’s disks; slowly adapting (tonic)

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22
Q

encapsulated endings

A
  • cells ore extracellular material surrounding the receptor; Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Krause’s corpuscles; rapidly adapting (phasic)
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23
Q

In Pacinian corpuscles

A

mechanical distortion causes the opening of Na+ channels. Stronger stimuli open more channels and recruit more receptors.

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24
Q

In Pacinian corpuscles

A

mechanical distortion causes the opening of Na+ channels. Stronger stimuli open more channels and recruit more receptors.

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25
Q

Touch receptors are most abundant on the fingers and lips but are scarce on

A

the trunk

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26
Q

Two major types of pain

A

Fast Pain and Slow Pain

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27
Q

Fast Pain

A

felt within 0.1 sec of stimulus

sharp, localized sensation immediately after stimulus
mostly cutaneous; cut, burn, electric shock
felt as sharp, prickling, acute, electric pain

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28
Q

Slow Pain

A

felt after 1 sec or more or stimulus

dull, intense, diffuse, unpleasant feeling (after initial wave of pain)
“can lead to prolonged, unbearable suffering” (from text)
can be cutaneous or visceral; tissue destruction
felt as slow burning, aching, throbbing, nauseous, chronic pain

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29
Q

There are three types of stimuli

A

mechanical, thermal, and chemical

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30
Q

Fast pain results from

A

mechanical and thermal pain, while all three types of stimuli cause slow pain.

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31
Q

Chemical pain is the result of

A

substances often released by damaged cells exciting receptors. Examples of these substances are bradykinin, serotonin, histamine, K+, H+, acetylcholine, and proteolytic enzymes.

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32
Q

Pain receptors do no adapt but instead

A

exhibit progressive increased sensitivity called hyperalgesia, especially with slow pain.

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33
Q

Prostaglandins and substance P function

A

nhance pain receptor sensitivity.

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34
Q

Aspirin inhibits

A

prostaglandins, which is part of its analgesic effect.

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35
Q

There are two types of temperature receptors

A

cold and warm

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36
Q

Cold receptors response range

A

8 to 43C

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37
Q

warm receptors response range

A

30 to 50C

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38
Q

adaptation temperature range

A

20 to 40 C

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39
Q

Normal Body Temperature

A

37 C

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40
Q

Tissue damage occurs and cold/warmth becomes pain at what temperatures

A

below 8C and above 50C

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41
Q

Temperature center in the body

A

Hypothalamus

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42
Q

Visceral pain is often referred to as a

A

somatic structure (ex. Heart pain is felt in the Left arm)

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43
Q

Common Visceral Receptors

A

Stretch and chemical receptors

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44
Q

baroreceptors-

A

walls of great elastic arteries, which are responsible for short-term regulation of blood pressure (Stretch Receptor)

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45
Q

walls of atria-

A

responsible for long term regulation of blood pressure (Stretch receptor)

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46
Q

alveoli of lungs-

A

Herring-Breuer Reflex to regulate respirations; this isn’t that important in humans (Stretch Receptor)

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47
Q

stomach-

A

gastrocholic reflex; causes contractions in the large intestine and regulates hunger (Stretch receptor)

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48
Q

colon-

A

primary stimulus for defecation (Stretch Receptor)

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49
Q

urinary bladder-

A

primary stimulus for urination (Stretch Receptor)

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50
Q

arterial PO2 (Chemoreceptor)-

A

walls of great elastic arteries; limited importance

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51
Q

H+/CO2 in medulla oblongata (Chemoreceptor)

A

pH of cerebrospinal fluid; important for regulation of respiration

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52
Q

osmotic pressure of plasma (Chemoreceptor)-

A

hypothalamus; water and salt balance

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53
Q

arteriovenous blood differences in glucose (Chemoreceptor)-

A

hypothalamus; regulates appetite

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54
Q

protein/lipid/H+ in small intestine (Chemoreceptor)-

A

enterogastric reflex; regulates stomach activity

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55
Q

NUmber of taste buds and location

A

10,000 taste buds on the upper surface of the tongue in fungiform and vallate papillae.

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56
Q

Fungifom Papillae are found

A

on the tip of the tongue , and there are

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57
Q

Vallate Papillae are found

A

at the back of the tongue, and there are ≤100 taste buds per papillae

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58
Q

Taste receptors are modified

A

Epithelial cells

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59
Q

In each taste bud, there are ___receptor cells and supporting cells that will become receptors. They are arranged like slices of an orange in the taste bud.

A

50

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60
Q

Microvilli from receptor cells are sticking out of the taste pore and in contact with mucous in which

A

food particles are dissolved.

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61
Q

five taste modalities:

A

bitter, sweet, sour, salt, and umami

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62
Q

Umami

A

Japanese for delicous, the associated chemical is L-Glutamate which is a savory taste (meat, aging cheese, soy)

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63
Q

Perceived taste depends on

A

the combination and degree of receptors stimualted similar to perception of color

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64
Q

Taste Blindness Chemical

A

phenyl-thiocarbamide

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65
Q

Frequency of Taste Blindness

A

15-30% of people can’t taste this chemical (phenyl-thiocarbamide)

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66
Q

Sour Taste Threshold (HCl)

A

0.0009 M

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67
Q

Salt Taste Threshold (NaCl)

A

0.01 M

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68
Q

Sweet Taste Threshold (Sucrose)

A

0.01 M

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69
Q

Bitter Taste Threshold (Quinine)

A

0.000008 M

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70
Q

Bitter may be a warning of

A

Dangerous chemicals since many toxins are bitter. The lowest threshold is for bitter and most are alkaloids and long-chain organics containing nitrogen

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71
Q

50% of taste adaptation occurs in the

A

Central nervous system

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72
Q

Sensory neurons for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue travel in

A

Cranial Nerve VII (facial nerve)

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73
Q

neurons for the posterior 1/3 of the tongue travel in

A

Cranial Nerve IX (glossopharyngeal nerve

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74
Q

Cells involved in smell

A

Olfactory Cells
Sustenacular Cells
Bowman’s Glands

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75
Q

Bowman’s Glands function

A

Mucous secretion

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76
Q

Olfactory cells

A

receptors; humans have about 100,000,000; neurons are replaced every 1-2 months (the only neurons in the human body that divide)

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77
Q

Sustenacular Cells

A

receptor precursors

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78
Q

Process of Smell

A

odorants bind to cilia of olfactory cells . The olfactory cells depolarize in response to the odorants. Olfactory cells penetrate the ethmoid bone and synapse at the olfactory bulb. The Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I) carries signals from there to the cerebrum and limbic systems

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79
Q

Ear is divided into three parts:

A

Inner, Middle, Outer

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80
Q

Outer and middle ear are

A

air-filled tunnels that direct and amplify sound waves

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81
Q

The inner ear

A

is fluid-filled and is the location of receptors for hearing and equilibrium

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82
Q

The outer ear consists of

A

Pinna, ear canal, and ear drum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates when struck with sound waves

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83
Q

Middle Ear

A

Cavity between the eardrum and the inner ear. It opens into the nasopharynx via eustachian tube. The tube is normally closed, but opening allows for pressure equalization

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84
Q

The main function of the middle ear

A

Transmit sound waves as vibrations to the inner ear

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85
Q

Three bones in the middle ear

A

Malleus, incus, and stapes
Malleus is next to the eardrum, the stapes is attached to the oval window (Beginning of inner ear), and the incus is between the malleus and the stapes.

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86
Q

Vibrations on the eardrum move the bones which result in vibrations on the oval window

A

with 20x amplification and faithful frequency

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87
Q

Inner ear modalities

A

Hearing and equilibrium

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88
Q

Hearing is detected with the

A

cochlea, which is innervated by the auditory nerve

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89
Q

Equilibrium is detected by the

A

vestibular apparatus, which is innervated by the vestibular nerve.

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90
Q

The auditory and vestibular nerves join to form the

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), Sensory only

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91
Q

CN VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve is routed through the medulla, then thalamus, and finally the auditory cortex of the cerebrum. Receptors in both modalities are hair cells, which are irreplaceable.

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92
Q

scala vestibuli

A

upper chamber filled with perilymph, connected to the oval window, communicates with the scala tympani via helicotrema

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93
Q

scala tympani-

A

lower chamber filled with perilymph, connected to the round window

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94
Q

scala media-

A

middle chamber filled with endolymph

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95
Q

Inner ear

A

Contains a canal within a canal. Outer canal is bony labrynth , channels within the temporal bone that are filled with fluid called perilymph.

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96
Q

Outer Canal of the inner ear

A

Outer canal is bony labrynth , channels within the temporal bone that are filled with fluid called perilymph.

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97
Q

Inner canal of the inner ear

A

is the membraneous labyrinth, channels with more or less the same shape as the bony labyrinth and filled with fluid called endolymph

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98
Q

Does communication exist between the endolymph and perilymph?

A

No. The two labyrinths divide the cochlea into three chambers:

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99
Q

Three chambers of the Cochlea

A

Scala Vestibuli
Scala Tympani
Scala Media

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100
Q

Organ of Corti

A

is found along the length of the floor of the scala media, making up the basilar membrane. Hair cells are found here, which are the sound receptors

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101
Q

Membrane covering the hair cells

A

tectorial membrane

102
Q

Reissner’s membrane

A

Roof of the scala media/floor of scala vestibu

103
Q

Endolymph is located between

A

the tectorial and Reissner’s membranes

104
Q

Steps of sound detection

A

Sound waves funneled through the outer ear hit the eardrum, which vibrate the middle ear bones. The stapes hits the oval window causing the perilymph to vibrate

105
Q

Reisner’s Membrane role in sound detection

A

causes endolymph to vibrate; moves the tectorial membrane causing hair cells to move. The mechanical deformation of hairs opens and closes K+ and Ca++ gates causing alternating depolarizing and hyperpolarizing graded potentials.

106
Q

Round window Role in sound detection

A

bulging of window dissipates sound waves

107
Q

Inner hair cells in sound detection

A

Sound waves cause a mechanical bend of inner hair cells that results in a graded potential. A sensory neurotransmitter, possible glutamate but still unclear, is released by the hair cell and binds to the next neuron in line

108
Q

Outer Hair cells in sound detection

A

they receive input from motor neurons. Outer hair cells frantically bound up and down if sounds are loud (high amplitude), possibly to enhance the response to inner hair cells.

109
Q

Sound Pitch

A

depends on frequency
seven notes
human ears can detect 20-20,000 Hz
120 Hz is the frequency of the average male’s voice, 250 Hz is the frequency of the average female’s voice

110
Q

intensity-

A

depends on amplitude; loudness
measure in decibels (DB), which is a log scale
jet plane = 160 DB
threshold of human hearing = 0.0002 DB
normal conversation = 60 DB
sounds ≥100 DB are dangerous
threshold of hearing moves the basilar membrane a fraction of a diameter of an H atom

111
Q

Frequency discrimination depends on

A

where waves hit High frequency hits early, low frequency hits late = place principle

112
Q

Amplitude discrimination depends on

A

how much of the hair on a hair cell is bent. Loud sounds bend the hair more

113
Q

Two types of deadfness

A

Conduction deafness and Nerve Deafness

114
Q

Conduction Deafness-

A

sound waves are poorly conducted to the Organ of Corti. This can be caused by a blocked ear canal, ruptured eardrum, fluid buildup in eustachian tube, problems with middle ear bones, and damage to oval window. Common treatments are hearing aides and tubes to drain the ears.

115
Q

Nerve Deafness-

A

sound waves in the inner ear are not transduced to action potentials. This can be caused by damage to the Organ of Corti, damage to the auditory nerve, damage to the auditory cortex of the brain, and excessive exposure to loud noises which kills hair cells. A common treatment is cochlear implants.

116
Q

Embryonically and morphologically the structures of the eye are derived from

A

The central nervous system

117
Q

The most complex sense organ

A

The eye

118
Q

Sclera

A

tough outer layer that makes up the white of the eye

Made from connective tissue

119
Q

cornea-

A

transparent portion of sclera that covers the iris and pupi

120
Q

choroid-

A

next layer of the eye inside the sclera
Highly vascularized
Feeds the retina

121
Q

retina-

A

found on the back of the eye

122
Q

Retina is made of

A

nervous tissue; photoreceptors and sensory neurons

123
Q

fovea centralis-

A

center of field of vision; loaded with conestext annotation indicator

124
Q

optic disk-

A

no photoreceptors because all sensory neurons converge to form the root of the optic nerve (Cranial Nerve II); also called the blind spot

125
Q

Lens-

A

proteinaceous, transparent structure behind the iris
Focuses light on the retina
associated with suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles to change the shape of the lens for focusing on images

126
Q

cataracts

A

cloudiness in the lens, occur when proteins in the lens are denatured

127
Q

iris-

A

pigmented cells above the lens

layers of circular and longitudinal muscles that constrict or dilate to control the amount of light entering the eye

128
Q

pupil-

A

opening in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter the eye

129
Q

Humors of the eye

A

aqueous humor and Vitreous humor

130
Q

aqueous Humor

A

fluid between the lens and the cornea; produced by the ciliary body (modified choroid); drained through the canal of Schlemm; blocking the canal causes glaucoma, which is an increase in intraocular pressure due to buildup of aqueous humor

131
Q

vitreous humor-

A

clear gelatinous material between lens and retina

132
Q

Focusing on light types

A

Far objects and near objects

133
Q

Focusing on far objects

A

pupil is dilated to let in light; longitudinal muscles contracted
lens is thin; ciliary muscles relaxed and suspensory ligaments taut

134
Q

Focusing on Near objects

A

pupil constricted to minimize light entry; circular muscles contracted
lens is thick; ciliary muscles contracted and suspensory ligaments relaxed

135
Q

Properties of light

A

Light resembles sound except frequencies are much higher. Light waves are measured in nm (1 m = 109 nm). Human eyes are sensitive to wavelengths between 400-700 nm. 400 nm = 7.52 X 1014 cycles/sec. Refer to Figure 50-8 to see the various wavelengths of light.

136
Q

Retina

A

the pigmented layer of the eye. It is black and absorbs light not directly striking photoreceptors. This is why pupils are black.

137
Q

Two types of photoreceptors in the eye

A

Rods and Cones

138
Q

Rods

A

detect light intensity or black and white vision
extremely sensitive to light but are unable to discriminate frequency
most numerous on the periphery of the retina

139
Q

Cones

A

detect color in the form of wavelengths
not very sensitive to light but discriminate frequency
1 cone:1 sensory neuron in the fovea centralis results in little convergence, high acuity or good detail resolution; no summation possible
concentrated in the center of the retina, especially in the fovea centralis

140
Q

Three types of cones

A

red, green, and blue

141
Q

Bipolar Cells

A

synapse with rods and cones

142
Q

ganglion cells-

A

synapse with bipolar cells; leave the eye in the optic nerve

143
Q

horizontal cells-

A

lateral connections between photoreceptors and bipolar cells

144
Q

amacrine cells-

A

lateral connections between bipolar and ganglion cells

145
Q

Opsin in Rods

A

rhodopsin, and it absorbs all wavelengths in the visible spectrum.

146
Q

Opsin in Cone Pigments

A

Absorbs at different wavelengths than rhodopsin

147
Q

Photopigments have 2 parts

A

Opsin and Retinal. Retinal is the same in all photoreceptors, but opsins vary

148
Q

Electrical Activity in the Dark

A
  1. In the outer segment, there is a high concentration of CGMP.
  2. Na+ channels open.
  3. Depolarization spreads across the receptor.
  4. Once at the synaptic end of the photoreceptor, Ca++ channels open.
  5. There is an increase in the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate.
  6. This inhibits bipolar cells.
  7. As a result, there is no action potential on ganglion cells.
149
Q

Electrical Activity in Light

A
  1. In the outer segment, a photopigment absorbs light causing a conformational change in the retina that activates opsin.
  2. This decreases the concentration of CGMP.
  3. Na+ channels close.
  4. The photoreceptor is hyperpolarized.
  5. Ca++ channels close.
  6. There is a decrease in the release of neurotransmitter.
  7. The bipolar cells are disinhibited (excited), and the potential is graded. Stronger light causes greater excitation.
  8. This causes an action potential on ganglion cells.
150
Q

Red-Green Colorblindness

A

Individuals with red-green color blindness are unable to distinguish between red and green because they have two types of cones instead of three (blue and red/green cones). Red-green color blindness is much more common in males because it is a sex-linked recessive trait.

151
Q

Our perception of color depends on

A

the relative excitement of three types of cones.

152
Q

Blue light color percentages

A

97% Blue cones stimulated

153
Q

Yellow light color percentages

A

83% Green cones stimulated

83% Red cones stimulated

154
Q

Green Light Color Percentages

A

36% Blue Cones stimulated
67% Green Cones Stimulated
31% Red Cones Stimulated

155
Q

Orange Light Color Percentages

A

42% Green Cones stimulated

99% Red Cones Stimulated

156
Q

3 Parts of the Brain

A

Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain

157
Q

Parts of the Hindbrain

A

medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum

158
Q

medulla oblongata-

A 
This is the most posterior part of the brain just anterior to the spinal cord. It is the major control center for several vital functions
Respirations
CV function
Vomiting
Swallowing
Coughing
159
Q

respiration-

A

location of medullary chemoreceptors that sample H+/CO2; location of neurons that control ventilation

160
Q

cardiovascular function-

A

input from baroreceptors; location of neurons that control heart activity

161
Q

vomiting-

A

sample the blood looking for toxins

162
Q

Pons

A

This is next up from the medulla. The pons is mostly involved in conduction of impulses to and from the cerebrum.

163
Q

cerebellum-

A

This is off the main stem. The cerebellum can be divided into three lobes or hemispheres. The function of the cerebellum is to control motor function

164
Q

vestibulocerebellum-

A

responsible for balance and control of eye movements

165
Q

spinocerebellum-

A

regulates muscle tone and coordination of skilled voluntary movement; compares intentions of cerebrum with performance of muscles and corrects any errors or deviations from the intended movement

166
Q

cerebrocerebellum-

A

planning and initiation of voluntary motor activity

167
Q

Roof of the midbrain

A

corpora quadrigemina and has four bumps

168
Q

superior colliculli that

A

have roles in visual reflexes and moving the head in response to visual stimuli

169
Q

inferior colliculli

A

have roles in auditory reflexes and moving the head in response to auditory stimuli.

170
Q

The base of the midbrain is called

A

the cerebral peduncles, which are massive nerve tracts carrying information to and from the cerebrum.

171
Q

Parts of the Forebrain

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum

172
Q

thalamus-

A

The thalamus is on top of the midbrain and found deep in the brain. It is an important relay station for preliminary processing of virtually all sensory input going to the cerebrum

173
Q

hypothalamus-

A

The hypothalamus is below the thalamus and has several vital functions.

174
Q

temperature center-

A

thermostats that control body temperature; origin of sweating and shivering

175
Q

Food intake

A

Glucostats
Feeding Center
Station Center

176
Q

feeding center-

A

when stimulated, it causes feeding; if destroyed, the individual will not eat

177
Q

satiation center-

A

when stimulated, it stops feeding; if destroyed, the individual will not stop eating

178
Q

water intake-

A

osmoreceptors; when there is high osmolarity (salt) in the blood, the individual becomes thirsty and urine volume decreases

179
Q

sleep/wake cycles-

A

daily clock; affected by jet lag, daylight savings time, and photoperiod

180
Q

hormones-

A

produces hormones that regulate urine production, uterus contractions during labor, ejection of milk during lactaction, and the pituitary gland

181
Q

cerebrum-

A

largest, most conspicuous part of the brain; made up of two hemispheres (left and right); connected by the corpus callosum, which is a thick band of approximately 300,000,000 axons

182
Q

Function of the Cerebrum

A

intelligence, reason, consciousness, discretion, etc.; not much known about the cerebrum, and there is no suitable animal model

183
Q

Two regions of the cerebrum

A

White and grey matter

184
Q

Outer Layer of the cerebrum

A

called the cerebral cortex, is made of grey matter and is made up of cell bodies.

185
Q

White matter contains

A

myelinated fibers and is found inside the cerebrum

186
Q

In the spinal cord, the position of the grey and white matter

A

is reversed with the grey matter in the inner layer of the cord and white matter in the outer layer of the cord.

187
Q

Deep within the white matter is

A

more grey matter called basal nuclei

188
Q

Cerebrum 4 lobes

A

Occipital Lobes
Temporal Lobes
Parietal Lobes
Frontal Lobes

189
Q

occipital lobes-

A

back of the cerebrum; processes visual input

190
Q

temporal lobes-

A

sides of the cerebrum; processes auditory input

191
Q

parietal lobes-

A

top of the cerebrum; two main functions

192
Q

Parietal Lobe functions

A

processing sensory input from the surface of the body such as temperature, pressure, pain, proprioreception; left side of body sends input to the right parietal lobe; somatosensory cortex is just behind the central sulcus which is a deep notch separating the parietal and frontal lobes; homunculus and modality apply here (partnership with thalamus)
understanding speech- Wernicke’s Area (discussed more later)

193
Q

frontal lobes-

A

front of the cerebrum; three main functions
voluntary motor activity- primary motor cortex; located just in front of the central sulcus; has partnership with cerebellum; left side muscles controlled by right frontal lobe; homonculus applies and modality in reverse
speaking ability- Broca’s Area (discussed more later)
elaboration of thought

194
Q

Simple and initial motor/sensory integration occurs in

A

the primary motor cortex or somatosensory cortex

195
Q

More complex integration occurs

A

more inward in the parietal and frontal lobes

196
Q

Association areas are “silent areas”, meaning

A

that electrical stimulation in these regions causes no observable motor or sensory response.

197
Q

Prefrontal Association Cortex-

A

in the frontal lobe; controls planning, decision making, and personality traits; this part is removed in a lobotomy

198
Q

Parietal-temporal-occipital Association Cortex-

A

pools and interprets somatic/auditory/visual sensations; comlex perceptual processing; also part of connection between Wernicke’s Area and visual and auditory cortexes

199
Q

Limbic Association Cortex-

A

inner surface and bottom of temporal lobe; motivation, emotion, and memory

200
Q

Wernicke’s Area-

A

posterior parietal lobe (left side of right-handed people); somatic, visual, auditory association areas all come together here; general interpretative area; gnostic area; knowing area; tertiary association area; electrical stimulation in Wernicke’s Area occassionally causes a complex thought

201
Q

Angular Gyrus-

A

just behind Wernicke’s Area and fusing with occipital lobe in behind; interpretation of visual information; if angular gyrus is destroyed, one can still interpret auditory data normally because the person can see the words but can’t interpret the meaning (dyslexia or word blindness)

202
Q

When a person learns a second language, where is it stored?

A

In a separate place from the first language

203
Q

When two languages are learned at the same time, where is it stored?

A

in the same place

204
Q

Broca’s Area is found

A

in the left frontal lobe

205
Q

Broca’s Area function

A

responsible for language expression. It is wired to facial muscles causing contractions that make appropriate sounds. Broca’s Area is also wired to hand muscles causing contractions responsible for writing.

206
Q

Wernicke’s Area is found

A

The left parietal Lobe

207
Q

Wernicke’s Area Function

A

responsible for language comprehension and formulation of coherent speech for expression by Broca’s Area. It receives input from the occipital lobe for reading comprehension and describing an object. Input from the temporal lobe is used for speech comprehension.

208
Q

Basal nuclei are made of

A

grey matter deep within the white matter

209
Q

The basal nuclei have three main functions

A

Inhibitory aspects of maintaining muscle tone
Help monitor and coordinate slow, contractions
selecting and maintaining useful motor activity

210
Q

inhibitory aspects of maintaining muscle tone-

A

Tone is the balance between excitation and inhibition of neurons associated with skeletal muscles.

211
Q

Parkinson’s Disease is caused by

A

degeneration of dopamine-secreting neurons of basal nuclei

212
Q

The symptoms of Parkinson’s

A

are useless or unwanted movements (trembling), increased muscle tone (rigidity), difficulty (slowness) initiating and carrying out different motor behaviors, and impeded speech.

213
Q

Parkinson’s can be treated with

A

administration of L-dopa, an isomer of dopamine. Dopamine itself cannot cross the blood brain barrier, but L-dopa can cross.

214
Q

The limbic system is

A

a ring of forebrain tissue (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus components) surrounding the midbrain.

215
Q

If you stimulate parts of the limbic system, you can produce

A

joy, satisfaction, fear, anxiety, anger, etc. If you stimulate other parts, copulatory movements are produced.

216
Q

An EEG

A

is a record of the electrical activity in the brain. Electrodes on the scalp record electrons, mostly EPSPs and IPSPs in the brain. EEGs are used to diagnose cerebral dysfunction, distinguish between different types of sleep, and determine legal brain death (no EEG activity).

217
Q

On average, about 20% of time sleeping is

A

REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

218
Q

Short-term memory is

A

used for rapid retrieval and is usually permanently lost or forgotten.

219
Q

information that is consolidated or practiced can become part of

A

one’s long-term memory. Long-term memory is used for slower retrieval but is usually only transiently forgotten.

220
Q

Engraved memories are

A

long-term memories that are rapidly retrieved

221
Q

Declarative memories are

A

things stated and are stored in the temporal lobes.

222
Q

Procedural memories

A

such as the steps of a certain dance, are stored in the cerebellum.

223
Q

Memory is located in

A

temporal lobes, limbic system, cerebellum, and diffuse other regions of the cerebrum.

224
Q

Short-term memory causes transient changes in

A

pre-existing synapses

225
Q

Long-term memory causes permanent physical changes

A

in the brain

226
Q

The steps in storing long-term memories are:

A

new synaptic connections between neurons form
changes in presynaptic or postsynaptic neurons
increase or decrease neurotransmitter release and synthesis

227
Q

Anterograde amnesia occurs when

A

the hippocampus is surgically removed

228
Q

A person with anterograde amnesia can recall

A

previously learned memoried fine but is unable to learn anything new based on verbal symbolism. They can remember for moments then forget, even names they see every day.

229
Q

Tumors in the CNS are

A

inappropriate divisions of glial cells since neurons don’t divide by mitosis.

230
Q

Four types of Glial Cells

A

Astrocytes
Oligodentrocytes
Ependymal Cells
Microglia

231
Q

Astrocytes-

A

most abundant glial cell; several functions
act as glue holding neurons together in correct spatial arrangements
help repair injuries and with scar formation
help with metabolic needs of neurons

232
Q

Astrocytes

A

remove excess K+ from the extracellular fluid when brain activity outstrips the Na+/K+ pump; if excess K+ wasn’t removed, the membranes would be hyperpolarized; hyperpolarization is related to epileptic seizures
help form the blood-brain-barrier;

233
Q

Oligodendrocytes-

A

form myelin sheaths around CNS axons; increase conduction speed; found in white matter; not capable of regeneration the way Schwann cells help with peripheral neurons

234
Q

Ependymal Cells-

A

line internal cavities of CNS; contribute to the formation of cerebrospinal fluid

235
Q

Microglia-

A

macrophages; cousins of monocytes; scavenge and phagocytize cell debris or foreign invaders

236
Q

Astrocytes in the blood brain barrier

A

astrocytes form tight junctions that prevent material from leaving the brain through capillary pores; no capillary pores in brain capillaries; material must move through protein channels and can move more easily into the plasma from the interstitial fluid and cerebrospinal fluid

237
Q

Meninges

A

Three protective and nourishing membranes

lie between bone and nervous tissue; meningitis is swelling associated with meninges

238
Q

Meninges (Layers)

A

Dura Mater
Arachnoid Mater
Subarachnoid Space
Pia Mater

239
Q

dura mater-

A

“tough mother”; tough, inelastic membrane overlying bone

240
Q

arachnoid mater-

A

“spiderlike mother”; delicate, highly vascularized layer; communication between the cerebrospinal fluid and blood; overlying bone

241
Q

subarachnoid space-

A

space between arachnoid and pia mater (see next); filled with cerebrospinal fluid

242
Q

pia mater-

A

“gentle mother”; fragile, highly vascularized; closely adheres to brain tissue; supplies brain tissue with blood; overlying brain tissue

243
Q

Brain and CNS surrounded by special shock-absorbing fluid called

A

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

244
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier

A

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the circulating blood from non-selectively crossing into the extracellular fluid of the central nervous system where neurons reside.

245
Q

Serotonin is

A

a “feel good” neurotransmitter. It is associated with clinical depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and anxiety disorders. Paxil is a drug administered to treat all these disorders, and it works by blocking serotonin reuptake pumps so serotonin remains in the synapses longer. Serotonin is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

246
Q

Dopamine is

A

also a feel good neurotransmitter and is associated with Parkinson’s Disease. People with Parkinson’s Disease have low dopamine levels. Dopamine may also be associated with schizophrenia. Dopamine is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

247
Q

Nitric Oxide is associated with

A

memory

248
Q

Enkephalins and endorphins are opiates associated with

A

suppression of pain. Morphine is an analgesic that stimulates the same receptors as enkephalins and endorphins

249
Q

GABA

A

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. GABA inhibits skeletal muscle pathways. Tetanus toxin prevents the release of GABA, which explains the symptoms of lockjaw. Death from lockjaw is due to respiratory failure because the diaphragm wouldn’t relax

250
Q

Glycine

A

an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Strychnine, a component of rat poison, blocks receptors for glycine.

Mammalian Physiology II (4 decks)

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