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AP Environmental Science > Unit 2: Principles of Ecology > Flashcards

Unit 2: Principles of Ecology Flashcards

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1
Q

Environmental Science

A

the broadest of all scientific disciplines and includes the study of matter

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2
Q

Matter

A

takes up space and has mass

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3
Q

Chemistry

A

the study of elements and compounds and how they interact

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4
Q

Law of Conservation of Matter

A

matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed into new substances

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5
Q

Elements

A

composed of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down into substances with other properties; make up all matter

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6
Q

Compounds

A

composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio; make up all matter

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7
Q

Isotopes

A

atoms of the same element with a differing number of neutrons and mass

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8
Q

Radioisotopes

A

change chemical identity as they shed subatomic particles, emitting radiation and decaying at a rate determined by their half-life

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9
Q

Half-life

A

the amount of time it takes for one-half the atoms to give off radiation and decay

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10
Q

Ions

A

charged atoms; their charge is due to an unequal number of protons and electrons

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11
Q

Ionizing Radiation

A

the changing radiation emitted by radioisotopes; because of the ions generated when striking molecules, affecting the stability and functionality of biological molecules such as DNA

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12
Q

Structure of the Water Molecule

A

the two hydrogen atoms and the one oxygen atom bond together to form a polar molecule

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13
Q

Polar Molecule

A

the end bearing the oxygen has a slightly negative charge, whereas the end bearing the hydrogen atoms has a slightly positive charge

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14
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

form between water molecules, giving the properties of cohesion, a high ability to dissolve many substances, and a high specific heat

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15
Q

Cohesion

A

water molecules “sticking” to one another

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16
Q

Acidic

A

pH < 7

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17
Q

Basic

A

pH > 7

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18
Q

Organic Compounds

A

always composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and sometimes the elements N, O, S, and P, are essential to all living things

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19
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

lack carbon-carbon bonds

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20
Q

Macromolecules

A

organic compounds including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids; play key roles as energy sources and are the building blocks of living organisms

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21
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

organic compounds consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms; are the primary constituents of fossil fuels and all petroleum products

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22
Q

Synthetic Polymers (plastics)

A

often long-lasting, resistant to chemical breakdown, and play a large role in our manufactured products; result in problems for wildlife, human health, water quality, and waste management

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23
Q

Energy

A

the capacity to accomplish work and change position, physical composition, or the temperature of matter

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24
Q

Potential Energy

A

energy of position

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25
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

energy of motion

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26
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

energy is always conserved (cannot be created nor destroyed) but can change in quality during chemical reactions

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27
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

energy will always change from more ordered to less ordered, degrading in quality and increasing in entropy, so long as no force counteracts this tendency

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28
Q

Energy Conversion Efficiency

A

the ratio of useful output of energy to the amount needed for input

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29
Q

Energy Transfer/Flow

A

occurs between trophic levels and is typically only 10% efficient

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30
Q

Photosynthesis

A

the process by which autotrophs/primary producers make organic compounds by converting light energy from the sun into chemical energy (sugars/food); sunlight powers the autotroph’s chemical reactions, converting CO2 and H20 into the concentrated chemical energy of sugars (C6H12O6), their food

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31
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

the process by which most organisms release the chemical energy of sugars (c6H12O6) to provide energy for both plant’s and animal’s cellular activities

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32
Q

Geothermal Energy

A

energy generated deep within Earth as a result of radioactive decay, producing pressure and heat

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33
Q

Plate Tectonics

A

the slow/large scale movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates (uppermost mantle), and is the fundamental process that shapes Earth’s physical geography, also producing earthquakes and volcanoes along the various types of plate boundaries (divergent, transform, and convergent)

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34
Q

Biogeography

A

geographic distribution of life

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35
Q

Rock Cycle

A

rocks, and the minerals that comprise them, are heated, melted, cooled, and reassembled in a very slow process

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36
Q

Volcanoes

A

arise from rifts (divergent plate boundaries), subduction zones (convergent plate boundaries), or hotspots

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37
Q

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

A

some individuals will be better suited to their environment than other and the genes/traits of these individuals that enhance survival will be passed on and become more prominent in future generations

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38
Q

Mutations and Sexual Reproduction

A

produce the essential genetic variation upon which the process of natural selection acts

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39
Q

Selective Pressures

A

from the environment and influence adaptation; determine what pressure natural selection will exert; affect which members of a population will survive and reproduce

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40
Q

Artificial Selection

A

the process of trait selection conducted under human direction, rather than environmental pressures

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41
Q

Speciation

A

the process by which new species are generated

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42
Q

Biodiversity

A

refers to the variety of life across all levels of biological organization, including the diversity of species, genes, populations, and communities

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43
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

occurs when an original population separates into geographically isolated populations that do not interbreed; it’s possible that significant genetic differences will accumulate between these populations because of their differing environments, causing them to be unable to mate and produce viable offspring if brought back together

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44
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

occurs when a small part of a population becomes a new species because of reproductive isolation within the same geographic area

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45
Q

Phylogenetic Trees

A

provide an illustration of the relationship’s of these species and the history of life’s divergencies and evolution

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46
Q

Small populations

A

lack the genetic variation required to protect them against environmental change

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47
Q

Island-Dwelling Species

A

small range population; particularly vulnerable because of the small areas and isolation by water, not allowing species movement if severe changes occur in their local environment

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48
Q

Mainland “Islands” of Habitat

A

can host endemic species that are vulnerable to extinction

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49
Q

K-Strategists

A

having few offspring that are larger in size, require longer parental care, and reach maturity at a later age

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50
Q

r-Strategists

A

species devoting energy and resources to producing many offspring in a relatively short time, with little or no parental care, that are small in size and come to maturity early

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51
Q

Specialists

A

species that can survive only in a narrow range of habitats that contain very specific resources; more vulnerable to extinction when conditions change and threaten the habitat or resource on which they have specialized

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52
Q

Endemic Species

A

those that occur nowhere else on the planet but in a very specific region; face increased risk of extinction because their members often belong to a single, sometimes small, population

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53
Q

Generalists

A

species with broad tolerances, able to use a wide array of resources, and succeed by being able to live in many different places with variable conditions; less susceptible to extinction

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54
Q

Ecology

A

the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environments, organized through the hierarchy:
organism -> population -> community -> ecosystem -> biosphere

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55
Q

Organism

A

an individual living thing

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56
Q

Population

A

a group of individuals of a species that live in a particular area

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57
Q

Community

A

a set o populations of different species living together in a particular area

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58
Q

Ecosystem

A

a functional system consisting of a community, its nonliving environment, and the interactions between htem

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59
Q

Biosphere

A

the sum total of living things on Earth, and the areas they inhibit

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60
Q

Habitat

A

the living and nonliving elements surrounding where an organism lives- its “address”

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61
Q

Niche

A

an organism’s use of resources and its functional role in a community, including habitat use, food consumption, role in energy flow/matter cycling, and all interactions with other organisms- its “profession”

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62
Q

Population Ecology

A

examines the dynamics of population change and helps us understand why populations of some species decline, while populations such as humans increase

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63
Q

Community Ecology

A

focuses on patterns of species diversity and on interactions among species

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64
Q

Ecosystem Ecology

A

reveals patterns such as energy flow and nutrient cycling by studying both living and nonliving components of ecosystems

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65
Q

Population Growth Potential Attributes

A

population size, density, distribution, sex ration, age structure, and population

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66
Q

Population Growth Rate

A

Crude Birth Rates (CBR) and Crude Death Rates (CDR)

(CBR - CDR) + (immigration rate - emigration rate) = population growth rate

(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration) / overall population size = growth rate

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67
Q

Type I Survivorship Curve

A

low death rates during early and midlife, followed by death rates that increase sharply in older age groups

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68
Q

Type II Survivorship Curve

A

a constant death rate over a life span

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69
Q

Type III Survivorship Curve

A

very high death rates for young, then a lower death rate for the few individuals surviving to older age

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70
Q

Exponential Growth

A

occurs when a population increases by a fixed percentage each year and is pictured as a J-curve; occurs in nature when a population is small, competition is minimal, and the organism is introduced into a new environment with abundant resources

71
Q

Limiting Factors

A

the physical, chemical, and biological attributes of the environment that restrain population growth, restricting indefinite exponential growth

72
Q

Carrying Capacity

A

maximum population size that a given environmental can sustain

73
Q

Logistic Growth

A

the pattern of growth in which a population initially grows rapidly, then more slowly, finally stabilizing at its carrying capacity as a result of limiting factors

74
Q

Density-Dependent Factors

A

are involved when death rates rise or birth rates fall as the overall population density rises
EX. diseases and predation

75
Q

Density-Independent Factors

A

involved when death rates do not change with increase or decrease in population density
EX. temperature extremes, floods, and fires

76
Q

Introduced Species

A

pose challenges for all native populations and communities

77
Q

Climate Change

A

temperature increases and shifting rainfall patterns cause areas within these protected areas to become unsuitable for the species they were meant to protect

78
Q

Competition

A

occurs when multiple organisms seek the same limited resource

79
Q

Intraspecific Competition

A

competition between members of the same species

80
Q

Interspecific Competition

A

competition between members of different species

81
Q

Fundamental Niche

A

the full niche of a species

82
Q

Realized Niche

A

niche that is displayed when, as a result of competition, an individual plays only part of its role or uses only part of its resources

83
Q

Resource Partitioning

A

species that adapt to competition by using slightly different resources and/or using them in slightly different ways

84
Q

Predation

A

process by which individuals of one species hunt, capture, kill, and consume individuals of another species; sometimes drives cyclical population dynamics

85
Q

Cyclical Population Dynamics

A

increases and decreases in the population of one species driving increases and decreases of another

86
Q

Parasitism

A

the interaction where one species derives benefit by harming (but usually not killing) another species

87
Q

Mutualism

A

the interaction where both species benefit

88
Q

Commensalism

A

the interaction where one species benefits and the other species is unaffected

89
Q

Herbivory

A

occurs when animals feed on plants

90
Q

10% Law

A

each trophic level contains just one-tenth the energy of the trophic level below it

91
Q

1st Trophic Level

A

contains producers, or autotrophs (those species capable of photosynthesis)

92
Q

2nd Trophic Level

A

contains primary consumers, or herbivores

93
Q

3rd Trophic Level

A

contains secondary consumers, or carnivores

94
Q

4th Trophic Level

A

contains tertiary consumers, or top carnivores

95
Q

Detritivores

A

scavenge dead organisms, feces, dead leaves, and wood, converting organic matter to inorganic matter
EX. millipedes, soil insects

96
Q

Decomposers

A

break down non-living matter into simpler constituents, recycling nutrients back to the producers
EX. bacteria, fungi

97
Q

Biomass

A

the organic material making up a living organism(s)

98
Q

Keystone Species

A

have strong or wide-ranging impacts in their ecosystem, far out of proportion to their actual abundance

99
Q

Top Predators

A

frequently considered keystone species and can promote trophic cascades
EX. wolves, sea stars, sharks, sea otters

100
Q

Trophic Cascade

A

keeping species in intermediate trophic levels in check, while promoting species in lower levels; Top predators do this

101
Q

“Ecosystem Engineers”

A

physically modify the environment shared by community members
EX. beavers, ants, termites, prairie dogs

102
Q

Ecological Syccession

A

refers to the transition in species composition that takes place in a given area over ecological time

103
Q

Primary Succession

A

plants and animals gradually invade a region that is devoid of life and where soil has not yet formed
EX. a glacier retreats or after a volcanic lava/ash spreads across a landscape

104
Q

Pioneer Species (Lichens)

A

begin the soil-building process in primary succession, eventually allowing grasses, shrubs, and the trees associated with the region’s climax community to increase

105
Q

Secondary Succession

A

the existing community has been cleared or disturbed

EX. forest fire, landslide, or farming

106
Q

Phase/Regime Shift

A

irreversible change if environmental disturbance is severe enough

107
Q

Introduced Species

A

are non-native species, introduced (accidentally or deliberately) into a new area, often spreading widely, rapidly becoming dominant, with the potential for interfering with a community’s normal functioning

108
Q

Invasive Species

A

when limiting factors that regulate their growth are absent (no predators and/or fewer competitors) and their population numbers increase dramatically

109
Q

Restoration Ecology

A

the study of the historical conditions present in ecological communities as they existed before human alteration

110
Q

Biomes

A

the major regional complexes of similar biological communities, often recognized by the indicator plants and animals occupying each

111
Q

Climate

A

determines the plant life in each biome, which in turn determines the animal life

112
Q

Temperate Deciduous Forest

A

fertile soils, deciduous trees, and precipitation spread evenly throughout the year

113
Q

Deserts

A

very sparse rainfall, extreme temperatures, and all plants and animals demonstrating water conservation adaptations

114
Q

Temperate Grassland (Prairie)

A

too little rainfall to support trees, with fertile soils, occasional fires, and large grazing mammals

115
Q

Tropical Rainforest

A

great biodiversity, warm temperatures, high rainfall, nutrient-poor and thin soils

116
Q

Tundra

A

permafrost, cold temperatures, little rainfall, no trees

117
Q

Boreal/Coniferous Forest (taiga)

A

dominated by cone-bearing plants; acid/nutrient-poor soils; long cold winters; moderate precipitation

118
Q

Savanna

A

tropical grassland, high temperatures, distinct rainy reasons, grazing animals concentrated near water roles

119
Q

Dynamic Equilibirum

A

when all planetary systems are working together naturally (without the effects of human intervention), natural processes will love in opposing directions at equivalent rates so that their effects create a balance

120
Q

Homeostasis

A

the tendency of a system to maintain constant or stable conditions; is a critical process to normal functioning of organisms, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere

121
Q

Hypoxia

A

low dissolved oxygen

122
Q

Negative Feedback Loop

A

occurs when a system’s output acts as an input that then moves the system in the opposing direction, toward stabilization (most systems in nature involve negative feedback loops)

123
Q

Positive Feedback Loops

A

increased output leads to increased input. leading to further increased output and destabilization of the system
EX. exponential population growth, Arctic sea ice/glacial melting

124
Q

Eutrophication

A

the process of increased nutrient (N and/or P) enrichment -> producing algal blooms -> followed by eventual microbial decomposition of this increased organic matter -> finally resulting in low oxygen levels/hypoxia and the suffocation of aquatic life

125
Q

Ecosystem

A

consists of all living organisms and the nonliving attributes (temperature, water, sunlight, etc.) that occur and interact in a particular area

126
Q

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

A

assimilation of energy into biomass by autotrophs during photosynthesis

127
Q

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

A

the energy/biomass that remains after respiration and is available for consumption by heterotrophs/consumers

128
Q

Net Primary Productivity Equation

A 
NPP = GPP - R
(r) = respiration
129
Q

Productivity

A

the rate at which autotrophs convert energy to biomass

130
Q

Landscape Ecology

A

approaches environmental problem solving on a broad, geographic scale that encompasses assessment of the multiple ecosystems involve; allows scientists to asses how landscape structure affects the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms

131
Q

Ecotones

A

transitional zones that consist of patches spatially arrayed into a mosaic o habitats

132
Q

Conservation Biology

A

the study of the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity

133
Q

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A

a common tool for landscape ecologists, involving computer software that takes multiple types of data and combines them on a common set of geographic coordinates in order to more accurately assess environmental problems

134
Q

Ecological Modelling

A

the practice of constructing and testing models that aim to explain and predict how ecological systems function

135
Q

Ecosystem Services

A

examples include the regulation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, precipitation, water supplies, etc.

136
Q

Reservoir

A

place where materials are stored

137
Q

Flux

A

rate at which materials move between reservoirs

138
Q

Source

A

releasing more materials than it accepts

139
Q

Sink

A

accepting more materials than it releases

140
Q

Water Cycle

A

involves the processes of evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, and surface runoff

141
Q

Carbon Cycle

A

circulates carbon, the defining element of all organic compounds (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins)

142
Q

Nitrogen Cycle

A

nitrogen fixation (N2 -> NH3) must be carried out by symbiotic bacteria living on modules of legumes. NH3 then combines with H20 to form NH4+ (ammonification). Other types of soil bacteria perform nitrification, changing NH4+ to NO2- and finally NO3- (nitrates); which can be taken up by plants and subsequently consumed by heterotrophs

143
Q

Denitrification

A

carried out by other soil bacteria when organisms die, converts NO3- to N2, thereby releasing nitrogen back into the atmosphere and completing the cycle

144
Q

Phosphorous Cycle

A

the only sedimentary cycle; no appreciable atmospheric reservoir; is frequently a limiting factor for plant growth

145
Q

Ocean Acidifcation

A

the process by which some of the excess CO2 in the atmosphere is being absorbed by ocean water; an additional concern of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels

146
Q

Haber-Bosch Process

A

learning how t synthesize ammonia on an industrial scale, where humans have doubled the rate of nitrogen fixation on Earth, increasing nitrogen’s movement from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface; leads to nutrient enrichment/pollution, eutrophication, hypoxia, and imbalanced nitrogen cycle

147
Q

Biodiversity

A

the multifaceted concept including the variety of life across all levels of biological organization

148
Q

Species Diversity

A

focuses on the number or variety of different species in a particular region

149
Q

Species Richness

A

the number of different species

150
Q

Species Evenness

A

the relative abundance of different species

151
Q

Genetic Diversity

A

focuses on the differences in DNA composition between individuals of the same species, which provide the crucial raw material for adaptation to local conditions

152
Q

Ecosystem Diversity

A

the number and variety of ecosystems, biotic communities, or habitats within a specific area

153
Q

Latitudinal Gradient

A

species richness generally increases as one approaches the equator

154
Q

Extinction

A

when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist

155
Q

Extirpation

A

when the last member of a species disappears from a given area, but not from the entire global population

156
Q

Background Rates of Extinction

A

estimated for mammals and marine animals to be 1 species vanishing per year for every 1-10 million species

157
Q

Red List

A

an updated list of species facing high risks of extinction

158
Q

Habitat Loss

A

single greatest cause of biodiversity loss; habitats are lost by outright destruction, moderate alteration, and most frequently, habitat fragmentation

159
Q

Habitat Fragmentation

A

farming, logging, and road building intrude into forested habitats, breaking up a continuous forest expanse into an array of fragments or patches

160
Q

Invasive Species

A

non-native species that thrive in areas where they are introduced, outcompeting, preying on, or otherwise harming native species

161
Q

Pollution

A

still is a substantial threat, although less significant in its effects than are habitat loss and invasive species.
EX. air pollution, water pollution, agricultural pollution, etc.

162
Q

Poaching

A

the illegal killing of wildlife for meat and body parts

163
Q

Biophilia

A

a human’s instinctive “love for nature”

164
Q

Conversation Biology

A

the scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity

165
Q

The Endangered Species Act (ESA)

A

forbids actions that destroy endangered species or their habitats and also forbids trade in products made from endangered species

166
Q

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

A

protects endangered species by banning the international transport of organisms or their body parts

167
Q

Convention on Biological Diversity

A

promotes the conversation of species, using biodiversity in a sustainable manner, and ensuring the fair distribution of biodiversity’s benefits

168
Q

Forensic DNA Analysis

A

able to identify a species and its specific geographic region of origin

169
Q

Umbrella Species

A

large species that roam great distances, and are often the focus of current conversation efforts because protecting them translates into protecting many species

170
Q

Parks and Protected Areas

A

remain undeveloped to help to conserve habitat, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes

171
Q

Biodiversity Hotspots

A

support a great number of endemic (native/found nowhere else) species

172
Q

Ecological Restoration

A

attempts to mitigate the effects of environmental degradation, focusing on reestablishing basic process (such as the cycling of nutrients and the flow of energy) that make an ecosystem function, along with bringing back the original population of plants and animals

173
Q

Community-Based Conservation

A

efforts draw ecotourism, support local economics, and empower residents toward sustainable management of their local environment

AP Environmental Science (5 decks)

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