Unit 2: Principles of Ecology Flashcards
Environmental Science
the broadest of all scientific disciplines and includes the study of matter
Matter
takes up space and has mass
Chemistry
the study of elements and compounds and how they interact
Law of Conservation of Matter
matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed into new substances
Elements
composed of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down into substances with other properties; make up all matter
Compounds
composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio; make up all matter
Isotopes
atoms of the same element with a differing number of neutrons and mass
Radioisotopes
change chemical identity as they shed subatomic particles, emitting radiation and decaying at a rate determined by their half-life
Half-life
the amount of time it takes for one-half the atoms to give off radiation and decay
Ions
charged atoms; their charge is due to an unequal number of protons and electrons
Ionizing Radiation
the changing radiation emitted by radioisotopes; because of the ions generated when striking molecules, affecting the stability and functionality of biological molecules such as DNA
Structure of the Water Molecule
the two hydrogen atoms and the one oxygen atom bond together to form a polar molecule
Polar Molecule
the end bearing the oxygen has a slightly negative charge, whereas the end bearing the hydrogen atoms has a slightly positive charge
Hydrogen Bonds
form between water molecules, giving the properties of cohesion, a high ability to dissolve many substances, and a high specific heat
Cohesion
water molecules “sticking” to one another
Acidic
pH < 7
Basic
pH > 7
Organic Compounds
always composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and sometimes the elements N, O, S, and P, are essential to all living things
Inorganic Compounds
lack carbon-carbon bonds
Macromolecules
organic compounds including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids; play key roles as energy sources and are the building blocks of living organisms
Hydrocarbons
organic compounds consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms; are the primary constituents of fossil fuels and all petroleum products
Synthetic Polymers (plastics)
often long-lasting, resistant to chemical breakdown, and play a large role in our manufactured products; result in problems for wildlife, human health, water quality, and waste management
Energy
the capacity to accomplish work and change position, physical composition, or the temperature of matter
Potential Energy
energy of position
Kinetic Energy
energy of motion
First Law of Thermodynamics
energy is always conserved (cannot be created nor destroyed) but can change in quality during chemical reactions
Second Law of Thermodynamics
energy will always change from more ordered to less ordered, degrading in quality and increasing in entropy, so long as no force counteracts this tendency
Energy Conversion Efficiency
the ratio of useful output of energy to the amount needed for input
Energy Transfer/Flow
occurs between trophic levels and is typically only 10% efficient
Photosynthesis
the process by which autotrophs/primary producers make organic compounds by converting light energy from the sun into chemical energy (sugars/food); sunlight powers the autotroph’s chemical reactions, converting CO2 and H20 into the concentrated chemical energy of sugars (C6H12O6), their food
Cellular Respiration
the process by which most organisms release the chemical energy of sugars (c6H12O6) to provide energy for both plant’s and animal’s cellular activities
Geothermal Energy
energy generated deep within Earth as a result of radioactive decay, producing pressure and heat
Plate Tectonics
the slow/large scale movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates (uppermost mantle), and is the fundamental process that shapes Earth’s physical geography, also producing earthquakes and volcanoes along the various types of plate boundaries (divergent, transform, and convergent)
Biogeography
geographic distribution of life
Rock Cycle
rocks, and the minerals that comprise them, are heated, melted, cooled, and reassembled in a very slow process
Volcanoes
arise from rifts (divergent plate boundaries), subduction zones (convergent plate boundaries), or hotspots
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
some individuals will be better suited to their environment than other and the genes/traits of these individuals that enhance survival will be passed on and become more prominent in future generations
Mutations and Sexual Reproduction
produce the essential genetic variation upon which the process of natural selection acts
Selective Pressures
from the environment and influence adaptation; determine what pressure natural selection will exert; affect which members of a population will survive and reproduce
Artificial Selection
the process of trait selection conducted under human direction, rather than environmental pressures
Speciation
the process by which new species are generated
Biodiversity
refers to the variety of life across all levels of biological organization, including the diversity of species, genes, populations, and communities
Allopatric Speciation
occurs when an original population separates into geographically isolated populations that do not interbreed; it’s possible that significant genetic differences will accumulate between these populations because of their differing environments, causing them to be unable to mate and produce viable offspring if brought back together
Sympatric Speciation
occurs when a small part of a population becomes a new species because of reproductive isolation within the same geographic area
Phylogenetic Trees
provide an illustration of the relationship’s of these species and the history of life’s divergencies and evolution
Small populations
lack the genetic variation required to protect them against environmental change
Island-Dwelling Species
small range population; particularly vulnerable because of the small areas and isolation by water, not allowing species movement if severe changes occur in their local environment
Mainland “Islands” of Habitat
can host endemic species that are vulnerable to extinction
K-Strategists
having few offspring that are larger in size, require longer parental care, and reach maturity at a later age
r-Strategists
species devoting energy and resources to producing many offspring in a relatively short time, with little or no parental care, that are small in size and come to maturity early
Specialists
species that can survive only in a narrow range of habitats that contain very specific resources; more vulnerable to extinction when conditions change and threaten the habitat or resource on which they have specialized
Endemic Species
those that occur nowhere else on the planet but in a very specific region; face increased risk of extinction because their members often belong to a single, sometimes small, population
Generalists
species with broad tolerances, able to use a wide array of resources, and succeed by being able to live in many different places with variable conditions; less susceptible to extinction
Ecology
the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environments, organized through the hierarchy:
organism -> population -> community -> ecosystem -> biosphere
Organism
an individual living thing
Population
a group of individuals of a species that live in a particular area
Community
a set o populations of different species living together in a particular area
Ecosystem
a functional system consisting of a community, its nonliving environment, and the interactions between htem
Biosphere
the sum total of living things on Earth, and the areas they inhibit
Habitat
the living and nonliving elements surrounding where an organism lives- its “address”
Niche
an organism’s use of resources and its functional role in a community, including habitat use, food consumption, role in energy flow/matter cycling, and all interactions with other organisms- its “profession”
Population Ecology
examines the dynamics of population change and helps us understand why populations of some species decline, while populations such as humans increase
Community Ecology
focuses on patterns of species diversity and on interactions among species
Ecosystem Ecology
reveals patterns such as energy flow and nutrient cycling by studying both living and nonliving components of ecosystems
Population Growth Potential Attributes
population size, density, distribution, sex ration, age structure, and population
Population Growth Rate
Crude Birth Rates (CBR) and Crude Death Rates (CDR)
(CBR - CDR) + (immigration rate - emigration rate) = population growth rate
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration) / overall population size = growth rate
Type I Survivorship Curve
low death rates during early and midlife, followed by death rates that increase sharply in older age groups
Type II Survivorship Curve
a constant death rate over a life span
Type III Survivorship Curve
very high death rates for young, then a lower death rate for the few individuals surviving to older age
Exponential Growth
occurs when a population increases by a fixed percentage each year and is pictured as a J-curve; occurs in nature when a population is small, competition is minimal, and the organism is introduced into a new environment with abundant resources
Limiting Factors
the physical, chemical, and biological attributes of the environment that restrain population growth, restricting indefinite exponential growth
Carrying Capacity
maximum population size that a given environmental can sustain
Logistic Growth
the pattern of growth in which a population initially grows rapidly, then more slowly, finally stabilizing at its carrying capacity as a result of limiting factors
Density-Dependent Factors
are involved when death rates rise or birth rates fall as the overall population density rises
EX. diseases and predation
Density-Independent Factors
involved when death rates do not change with increase or decrease in population density
EX. temperature extremes, floods, and fires
Introduced Species
pose challenges for all native populations and communities
Climate Change
temperature increases and shifting rainfall patterns cause areas within these protected areas to become unsuitable for the species they were meant to protect
Competition
occurs when multiple organisms seek the same limited resource
Intraspecific Competition
competition between members of the same species
Interspecific Competition
competition between members of different species
Fundamental Niche
the full niche of a species
Realized Niche
niche that is displayed when, as a result of competition, an individual plays only part of its role or uses only part of its resources
Resource Partitioning
species that adapt to competition by using slightly different resources and/or using them in slightly different ways
Predation
process by which individuals of one species hunt, capture, kill, and consume individuals of another species; sometimes drives cyclical population dynamics
Cyclical Population Dynamics
increases and decreases in the population of one species driving increases and decreases of another
Parasitism
the interaction where one species derives benefit by harming (but usually not killing) another species
Mutualism
the interaction where both species benefit
Commensalism
the interaction where one species benefits and the other species is unaffected
Herbivory
occurs when animals feed on plants
10% Law
each trophic level contains just one-tenth the energy of the trophic level below it
1st Trophic Level
contains producers, or autotrophs (those species capable of photosynthesis)
2nd Trophic Level
contains primary consumers, or herbivores
3rd Trophic Level
contains secondary consumers, or carnivores
4th Trophic Level
contains tertiary consumers, or top carnivores
Detritivores
scavenge dead organisms, feces, dead leaves, and wood, converting organic matter to inorganic matter
EX. millipedes, soil insects
Decomposers
break down non-living matter into simpler constituents, recycling nutrients back to the producers
EX. bacteria, fungi
Biomass
the organic material making up a living organism(s)
Keystone Species
have strong or wide-ranging impacts in their ecosystem, far out of proportion to their actual abundance
Top Predators
frequently considered keystone species and can promote trophic cascades
EX. wolves, sea stars, sharks, sea otters
Trophic Cascade
keeping species in intermediate trophic levels in check, while promoting species in lower levels; Top predators do this
“Ecosystem Engineers”
physically modify the environment shared by community members
EX. beavers, ants, termites, prairie dogs
Ecological Syccession
refers to the transition in species composition that takes place in a given area over ecological time
Primary Succession
plants and animals gradually invade a region that is devoid of life and where soil has not yet formed
EX. a glacier retreats or after a volcanic lava/ash spreads across a landscape
Pioneer Species (Lichens)
begin the soil-building process in primary succession, eventually allowing grasses, shrubs, and the trees associated with the region’s climax community to increase
Secondary Succession
the existing community has been cleared or disturbed
EX. forest fire, landslide, or farming
Phase/Regime Shift
irreversible change if environmental disturbance is severe enough
Introduced Species
are non-native species, introduced (accidentally or deliberately) into a new area, often spreading widely, rapidly becoming dominant, with the potential for interfering with a community’s normal functioning
Invasive Species
when limiting factors that regulate their growth are absent (no predators and/or fewer competitors) and their population numbers increase dramatically
Restoration Ecology
the study of the historical conditions present in ecological communities as they existed before human alteration
Biomes
the major regional complexes of similar biological communities, often recognized by the indicator plants and animals occupying each
Climate
determines the plant life in each biome, which in turn determines the animal life
Temperate Deciduous Forest
fertile soils, deciduous trees, and precipitation spread evenly throughout the year
Deserts
very sparse rainfall, extreme temperatures, and all plants and animals demonstrating water conservation adaptations
Temperate Grassland (Prairie)
too little rainfall to support trees, with fertile soils, occasional fires, and large grazing mammals
Tropical Rainforest
great biodiversity, warm temperatures, high rainfall, nutrient-poor and thin soils
Tundra
permafrost, cold temperatures, little rainfall, no trees
Boreal/Coniferous Forest (taiga)
dominated by cone-bearing plants; acid/nutrient-poor soils; long cold winters; moderate precipitation
Savanna
tropical grassland, high temperatures, distinct rainy reasons, grazing animals concentrated near water roles
Dynamic Equilibirum
when all planetary systems are working together naturally (without the effects of human intervention), natural processes will love in opposing directions at equivalent rates so that their effects create a balance
Homeostasis
the tendency of a system to maintain constant or stable conditions; is a critical process to normal functioning of organisms, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere
Hypoxia
low dissolved oxygen
Negative Feedback Loop
occurs when a system’s output acts as an input that then moves the system in the opposing direction, toward stabilization (most systems in nature involve negative feedback loops)
Positive Feedback Loops
increased output leads to increased input. leading to further increased output and destabilization of the system
EX. exponential population growth, Arctic sea ice/glacial melting
Eutrophication
the process of increased nutrient (N and/or P) enrichment -> producing algal blooms -> followed by eventual microbial decomposition of this increased organic matter -> finally resulting in low oxygen levels/hypoxia and the suffocation of aquatic life
Ecosystem
consists of all living organisms and the nonliving attributes (temperature, water, sunlight, etc.) that occur and interact in a particular area
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
assimilation of energy into biomass by autotrophs during photosynthesis
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
the energy/biomass that remains after respiration and is available for consumption by heterotrophs/consumers
Net Primary Productivity Equation
NPP = GPP - R (r) = respiration
Productivity
the rate at which autotrophs convert energy to biomass
Landscape Ecology
approaches environmental problem solving on a broad, geographic scale that encompasses assessment of the multiple ecosystems involve; allows scientists to asses how landscape structure affects the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms
Ecotones
transitional zones that consist of patches spatially arrayed into a mosaic o habitats
Conservation Biology
the study of the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity
Geographic Information System (GIS)
a common tool for landscape ecologists, involving computer software that takes multiple types of data and combines them on a common set of geographic coordinates in order to more accurately assess environmental problems
Ecological Modelling
the practice of constructing and testing models that aim to explain and predict how ecological systems function
Ecosystem Services
examples include the regulation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, precipitation, water supplies, etc.
Reservoir
place where materials are stored
Flux
rate at which materials move between reservoirs
Source
releasing more materials than it accepts
Sink
accepting more materials than it releases
Water Cycle
involves the processes of evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, and surface runoff
Carbon Cycle
circulates carbon, the defining element of all organic compounds (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins)
Nitrogen Cycle
nitrogen fixation (N2 -> NH3) must be carried out by symbiotic bacteria living on modules of legumes. NH3 then combines with H20 to form NH4+ (ammonification). Other types of soil bacteria perform nitrification, changing NH4+ to NO2- and finally NO3- (nitrates); which can be taken up by plants and subsequently consumed by heterotrophs
Denitrification
carried out by other soil bacteria when organisms die, converts NO3- to N2, thereby releasing nitrogen back into the atmosphere and completing the cycle
Phosphorous Cycle
the only sedimentary cycle; no appreciable atmospheric reservoir; is frequently a limiting factor for plant growth
Ocean Acidifcation
the process by which some of the excess CO2 in the atmosphere is being absorbed by ocean water; an additional concern of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels
Haber-Bosch Process
learning how t synthesize ammonia on an industrial scale, where humans have doubled the rate of nitrogen fixation on Earth, increasing nitrogen’s movement from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface; leads to nutrient enrichment/pollution, eutrophication, hypoxia, and imbalanced nitrogen cycle
Biodiversity
the multifaceted concept including the variety of life across all levels of biological organization
Species Diversity
focuses on the number or variety of different species in a particular region
Species Richness
the number of different species
Species Evenness
the relative abundance of different species
Genetic Diversity
focuses on the differences in DNA composition between individuals of the same species, which provide the crucial raw material for adaptation to local conditions
Ecosystem Diversity
the number and variety of ecosystems, biotic communities, or habitats within a specific area
Latitudinal Gradient
species richness generally increases as one approaches the equator
Extinction
when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist
Extirpation
when the last member of a species disappears from a given area, but not from the entire global population
Background Rates of Extinction
estimated for mammals and marine animals to be 1 species vanishing per year for every 1-10 million species
Red List
an updated list of species facing high risks of extinction
Habitat Loss
single greatest cause of biodiversity loss; habitats are lost by outright destruction, moderate alteration, and most frequently, habitat fragmentation
Habitat Fragmentation
farming, logging, and road building intrude into forested habitats, breaking up a continuous forest expanse into an array of fragments or patches
Invasive Species
non-native species that thrive in areas where they are introduced, outcompeting, preying on, or otherwise harming native species
Pollution
still is a substantial threat, although less significant in its effects than are habitat loss and invasive species.
EX. air pollution, water pollution, agricultural pollution, etc.
Poaching
the illegal killing of wildlife for meat and body parts
Biophilia
a human’s instinctive “love for nature”
Conversation Biology
the scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity
The Endangered Species Act (ESA)
forbids actions that destroy endangered species or their habitats and also forbids trade in products made from endangered species
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
protects endangered species by banning the international transport of organisms or their body parts
Convention on Biological Diversity
promotes the conversation of species, using biodiversity in a sustainable manner, and ensuring the fair distribution of biodiversity’s benefits
Forensic DNA Analysis
able to identify a species and its specific geographic region of origin
Umbrella Species
large species that roam great distances, and are often the focus of current conversation efforts because protecting them translates into protecting many species
Parks and Protected Areas
remain undeveloped to help to conserve habitat, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes
Biodiversity Hotspots
support a great number of endemic (native/found nowhere else) species
Ecological Restoration
attempts to mitigate the effects of environmental degradation, focusing on reestablishing basic process (such as the cycling of nutrients and the flow of energy) that make an ecosystem function, along with bringing back the original population of plants and animals
Community-Based Conservation
efforts draw ecotourism, support local economics, and empower residents toward sustainable management of their local environment
