Unit 2: organic chem Flashcards
Organic compounds are
Essential components of all living organisms
Large, complex molecules
Contain carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds
Carbon is
Small in size
Electrically neutral
Shares electrons with other atoms
Enables formation of long hydrocarbon chains or rings
Functional groups can attach to carbon chains or rings
Functional group
A unique combination of atoms that differentiates organic compounds of one class to another
Functional groups determine
the chemical property of the compound
represents the metabolically active portion of the molecule
Alkane functional group
c-c bond
-ane ending
Nonpolar
insoluble in water
less dense than water
least reactive
Alkane examples
Methane, propane, butane, mineral oil, moisturizers that form a barrier and prevent water from passing through and evaporating in the skin
Alkene functional group
c=c
-ene ending
Non-polar
insoluble in water
Less dende than water
Quite reactive
Alkene examples
Lycopene
- antioxidant
Ethylene
- used in the chemical industry to make polyethylene
Alcohol functional groups
Compound with a hydroxyl group attached to carbon
-ol ending
Hydrogen bonding can occur
Solubility in water depends on number of C atoms/hydroxyl group
Lower molecular weight = more soluble in water
Alcohol example
Methanol
Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol
Glycerol
Phenol functional group
Compound in which a hydroxyl group is connected to a benzene ring
Weak acids
Can damage skin by denaturing proteins
Phenol examples
Phenol(C6H5OH)
Lysol
Polyphenols
Ether functional group
Organic compound in which 2 carbon atoms are bonded to an O
Very unreactive
Much less polar than alcohol
Slightly soluble in water b/c of O forming hydrogen bonds
Flammable
Ether examples
Diethyl ether
- first general anesthetic
Divenyl ether
- Anesthetic
Carbonyl group
Carbon double bonded to an oxygen
Aldehyde functional group
Compound that has a carbonyl group bonded to one hydrogen
-aldehyde ending
Carbonyl group is polar
Lower molecular weight are water soluble
Formaldehyde
- simplest aldehyde
- usually in form of 37 percent aqueous solution called formalin
- kills microorganisms
- Embalm cadavers
Ketone functional group
Has a carbonyl group bonded to two carbons
-one ending
Carbonyl group is polar
Partially broken down fats
Ketone examples
Acetone
Progesterone
Testosterone
Carboxylic acid functional group
Organic compound that contains the carbonyl functional group
COOH
If they contain 8 or more C they are considered water insoluble
Generally weak acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with long H-C chains
Carboxylic acids Examples
Lactic acid (lactate)
Citric acid (citrate)
Pyruvic acid (pyruvate)
Ester
Compound with ester group
O
||
/ C \
C C
Ester examples and what they are used for
Poleyethelyne terephthalate (PET)
- Dacron
- thread used for suture
- fabric replace sections of blood vessels and the esophagus
Nitroglycerin
- sometimes used in cases of heart failure to dilate veins and help reduce congestion
Amine functional group
Derivatives of ammonia, NH3, where one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an organic (R) group
Fewer than 6 C are generally soluble in water
Amine examples and what they do
Benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran)
- disinfectant
Neurotransmitters
- carry nerve impulses form one neuron to another
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
- Hormone that increases blood level of glucose
Alkaloids
Atropine
- preoperative drug to relax muscle and reduce saliva
Morphine and Codeine
- Central nervous system depressant
- painkiller
Amide functional groups
Organic compounds containing a carbonyl group attached to nitrogen
Are neutral
Amide examples and what they do
Nylon
- polyamide
- tubing and sutures
Wool
- natural polyamide
Thiopental (pentothal)
- intravenous anesthesia
Diazepam (Valium)
- tranquilizer
Ampicillin
- antibiotic
Detergents and soaps
Cleaning action comes from activity as emulsifying agents
Dissociate to form ions when placed in water
Non polar substances are attracted to uncharged ends of soap or detergent
Forms a layer around the oil droplets which keeps them separated and suspended
Antiseptic
Kills bacteria on living tissue
Disinfectants
Kills bacteria on inanimate objects
Oxidizing antiseptics
Destroy compounds essential to bacterial function
May damage skin and normal tissue
Eg. hydrogen peroxide and iodine
Oxidizing disinfectants
Many disinfectants are oxidizing agents
Sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
Calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder)
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
Hydrated carbon molecules
Used for energy, storage of energy, and cellular structures
Types:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Monosaccharide
Simple sugar
Water soluble- hydrophilic
Contains 3-7 carbon atoms in a chain or ring
Hexose sugar has 6 carbons
Pentose sugar has 5 carbons
Glucose
Most nutritionally important monosaccharide
Sometimes called dextrose or blood sugar
The compound to which other sugars absorbed into the body must be converted in the liver
Galactose
A monosaccharide
A hexose
Similar structure to glucose
Component of lactose
Component of substances present in nerve tissue
Fructose
The sweetest monosaccharide
Sometimes called levulose or fruit sugar
Disaccharide
Composed of 2 monosaccharide
Dehydration syntheses - water is created when two monosaccharides are joined together to form a disaccharide (anabolism)
Hydrolysis - water is utilized when a disaccharide is decomposed into its monosacchride components (catabolism)
Sucrose
Important disaccharides
Common household sugar
Composed of glucose and fructose joined together
Found in plants
Maltose
Disaccharides
Contains 2 joined glucose units
Formed during digestion of starch
Lactose
Disaccharide
Milk sugar
Composed of one molecule of galactose and one glucose
Polysaccharide
Combination of many monosaccharides
Not water soluble b/c of size
Can have a structural or energy storage function
Starch
Polysaccharide
A polymer consisting of glucose units
Two forms in plants: amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched more abundant)
Hydrolyzed to monosaccharides and disaccharides to be used as energy
Glycogen
Polysaccharide
Animal starch
A polymer of glucose units
Used by animals to store glucose, especially in the liver and muscles
On hydrolysis glucose is released
Structurally similar to amylopectin, but more highly branched
Cellulose
Polysaccharides
Polymer of glucose units
Most important structural polysaccharide
Most abundant organic compound in earth
Found in cell walls
Not easily digested
Consistent of dietary fiber
Herbivores such as cows, sheep, and horses can use cellulose as food
Lipids are made up of
C,H,O, and sometimes P
Generally hydrophobic
Lipids function
Energy use and storage
Structural components
Chemical messengers
Five classes of lipids
Neutral fats (triglycerides)
Waxes
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
Fatty acids
Are the building blocks of many lipids
Are long chain carboxylic groups
Have long nonpolar tails responsible for fatty/oily characteristics
Saturated fatty acids
Carbon atoms single bonded to each other
Solid at room temp
Unsaturated fatty acids
Carbon bonds are not filled with hydrogen, one or more double carbon-carbon bonds
Liquid at room temp
Essential fatty acids
Those needed by the body, but not synthesized within the body in adequate amounts
- Linoleic and linolenic are essential
Linolenic and linoleic acids
Are used to produce hormone-like substances that regulate a wide range of functions and characteristics
Eg. blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipids level, the immune response, and the inflammation response to injury and infection
Neutral fats
Also called triglycerides
Composed of a glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acids attached
Nonpolar
Triglycerides used for energy
Decomposed through hydrolysis reaction
Excess food is stored as triglycerides
Stored in fat cells (adipose tissue) often around internal organs and under skin
Adipose tissue insulates and protects organs
Lipoproteins
Are used to transport fats within the body
Composed of protein and lipid
Protein is hydrophilic and shields fat in blood plasma
Waxes
Composed of a long chain fatty acid portion and a long chain alcohol portion
Water insoluble
protective coatings on feathers, fur, and skin
Example: sebum
secretion of sebaceous glands
Keeps skin soft and prevents dehydration
Phospholipids
Components:
- a gyycerole backbone
- phosphate group (PO4) attached to a nitrogen-containing compound
- water-soluble head end
- two fatty acids
- water-insoluble tail end
Main component of cell membranes
If phospholipids are surrounded by water they form a phospholipid bilayer
Heads are outward and tails toward one another
Phospholipids also form the myelin sheath of nerve cells
Steroids
Lipids that take form of 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings
Hydrophobic
Nonpolar
Different types formed by attaching unique functional groups
Cholesterol
An essential component of cell membranes
a precursor of other important steroids
Cortisone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
Used in formation of bile salts
Cortisol
Example of a steroid
Glucocorticoid produced in the adrenal glands
Increases glucose and glycogen concentrations in the body
Has powerful anti-inflammatory effects
Aldosterone
Steroid
Mineralocorticoid produced in the adrenal glands
Influences the absorption of Na+ and Cl- in kidney tubules
Involved in water balance in the body
Estrogen
Hormone involved in egg development in ovaries
Bile salts
Bile is a liver secretion stored in the gallbladder
Bile empties into the intestine and aids in fat digestion
Bile salts emulsify lipids and break large fat globules into smaller droplets
Larger surface area is available for hydrolysis reactions
Principle bile salt is sodium glycocholate
Eicosanoid definition and examples
Lipids formed from 20 carbon fatty acid and a ring structure
Eicosanoid Examples
Prostaglandins
- Mediate inflammation
Thromboxane
- Produced by platelets
- Causes vasoconstriction and promotes clumping of platelets
Leukotrienes
- Mediate bronchoconstriction and increased mucus production
Proteins
Most abundant organic molecules in the body
Composed primarily of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
Worker molecules of body:
- Organize and facilitate all metabolic processes
- catalyze chemical reactions
- used for cell structure and structural body tissues
- regulate growth
- transport ions and molecules into and out of cells
- Defend the body against invaders
Carbs do not have nitrogen
Amino acids
Building blocks of proteins
20 different amino acids
Sequence of amino acids makes each protein unique
Defines the protein’s function
Specific combinations of AA is determined by the cells of DNA
Amino acids basic structure
Central carbon atom attached to a hydrogen atom
Amino group (NH2)
Carboxyl group (COOH)
side chain = R group
defines each amino acid
“R” groups can be:
Neutral and polar
Neutral and nonpolar
Basic
Acidic
Peptide
Two or more AA are linked together
- dipeptide
- tripeptide
- polypeptide
- protein
Formed by dehydration synthesis: peptide bond
Simple proteins
Contain only amino acids
Conjugated proteins
Contain amino acids and other organic or inorganic components
Prosthetic groups
Lipids
Carbs
Metal ions
Phosphate group
Primary structure of protein
Sequence and number of amino acids that link together to form the peptide chain
Secondary structure of protein
Natural bends of parts of the peptide chain
Most common shapes
alpha helix
beta-pleated sheet
Held by hydrogen bonds
Tertiary structure of proteins
Overall shape of a single molecule
Held by:
- hydrophobic regions inside
- hydrogen bonds
- salt bridges
Between acidic and basic amino acids
Disulfide bonds
Disulfide bridge (bond)
Covalent bond between S of two cystines
Holds single peptide chain in a loop or two peptides together
Peptides with disulfide bridges
Vasopressin - antidiuretic hormone - decreases urine formation
Oxytocin - causes uterine contractions
Quaternary structure of proteins
Two or more protein chains join to form a macromolecule
Protein size
Extremely large natural polymers
Too large to pass through cell membranes
Contained inside the cells where they were formed
Can leak out if cell is damaged by disease or trauma
Protein in urine can indicate damaged kidneys
Protein denaturation
Protein unfolds, loses its characteristic shape and loses function
Can occur because of hyperthermia
elevated body temperature
Hydrogen bonds holding protein in tertiary structure break
Some proteins denature at 40°C
Death can occur at 41.7°C if maintained for 30 minutes
Catalytic protein function
Enzymes
Structural proteins function
form structural materials other than the inorganic components of the skeleton
Storage proteins example and functions
Store small molecules or ions
Ovalbumin – stored form of amino acids used by embryos in bird eggs
Casein – storage protein in milk (nourishes animals)
Protective proteins function
Antibodies - protect the body from invasion by viruses, bacteria, and other foreign substances
Blood clotting - carried out by thrombin and fibrinogen
Regulatory function
Responsible for hormone regulation of body processes
Growth hormone
Gastrin
- Stimulates stomach to secrete acid
Glucagon
- Stimulates glycogen metabolism in liver
Insulin
- Regulates glucose metabolism
Nerve impulse transmission functions
receptors of small molecules that pass between gaps separating nerve cells
Rhodopsin – in rod cells of the retina
Acetylcholine receptor – impulse transmission in nerve cells
Movement proteins function
-muscle
Actin and myosin
Transport proteins function
Bind and transport numerous small molecules and ions through the body
Serum albumin – transports fatty acids between adipose tissue and other tissues
Hemaglodin – carries oxygen from lungs to other body tissues
Types of protein
Fibrous and globular
Fibrous protein
Used for adding strength to tissues or cells
- long stringy shape
- stable
- rigid
- water-insoluble
Fibrous proteins example and their function
Collagen – main protein in connective tissues
Fibrin – connective tissue in blood clots
Keratin– main protein in hair, hooves, feathers, horns, and outer layer of skin
Globular protein
Highly chemically active molecule
- convoluted, changeable - shape
- Flexible
- Water-soluble
Globular protein examples
Hemoglobin(transport protein)
Antibodies
protein-based hormones
Enzymes
Enzymes
Proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions
Enzymes are specific to the reaction they catalyze
- lock and key properties
Substrates = substances enzymes act upon
- Enzyme fits its substrate exactly
- Enzyme is unaltered at end of reaction
Enzymatic reactions are often in a series of reactions
- Products of one reaction act as substrate for next reaction
Nucleic acids
Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
Examples:
Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)
Ribonucleic acid(RNA)
Adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
Nucleotoids
Molecular building blocks of nucleic acids
Five different types with same basic structure:
- nitrogen base
- a five-carbon sugar
- deoxyribose in DNA
- ribose in RNA
a phosphate group
Nucleotides in DNA
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Nucleotides in RNA
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Uracil
DNA
Function: stores genetic information in its sequence
DNA structure: double helix
- Alternating sugar and phosphate groups form the sides
- sugar-phosphate backbone
Phosphate of one nucleotide links to sugar of adjacent nucleotide
Two strands of nucleotides twisted around in a double helix
Strands are connected by hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases
- adenine can bond only with thymine
- guanine can bond only with cytosine
Base pairing occurs when the two polynucleotide chains are lined up in opposite directions
Anti parallel
RNA
Consists of only one strand of nucleotides
Three types:
Ribosomal RNA(rRNA) – large component of ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis
Messenger RNA(mRNA) - carries information for polypeptide synthesis from nucleus to ribosomes
Transfer RNA(tRNA) - carries specific amino acids to the ribosome for synthesis of polypeptides
Adenosine Triphosphate
Energy currency of cells
Composed of:
Adenine
Ribose
Three phosphate group
Energy is stored in the phosphate high-energy bonds of the ATP molecule
Energy is released when phosphate groups are removed
