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CfE Higher Biology > Unit 2 - Metabolism & Survival > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Metabolism & Survival Flashcards

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1
Q

metabolism

A

all the chemical reactions taking place within a cell

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2
Q

metabolic pathways

A

most chemical reactions occur as part of integrated and interconnected pathways, catalysed by enzymes

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3
Q

catabolic pathways

A

is a degradation reaction that releases energy

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4
Q

anabolic pathways

A

bio-synthesis reaction that uses energy

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5
Q

catabolic and anabolic reactions are usually closely ______________ and therefore often rely on one another

A

integrated

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6
Q

___ acts as an important means of energy transfer between reactions

A

ATP

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7
Q

most metabolic pathways have both ___________ ____ ______________ steps

A

reversible and irreversible

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8
Q

what does the irreversible conversion of glucose to intermediate 1 mean?

A

this allows a concentration gradient to be maintained which promotes the diffusion of glucose into the cell

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9
Q

what does the reversible conversion of intermediate 1 to intermediate 2 mean?

A

if there is more of intermediate 2 made that the body requires it can be converted back into intermediate 1 and be used in an alternative pathway

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10
Q

alternative pathways

A

are pathways that exists through substances that allow certain stages controlled by enzymes to be bypassed

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11
Q

the cell membrane

A

separates the intracellular environment from the extracellular environment

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12
Q

the cell membrane ___________ the flow of materials into and out of the cell

A

regulates

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13
Q

Two examples of organelle bounded by double membrane

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts, inner membrane acts as highly metabolic membrane surfaces

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14
Q

molecular transport

A

proteins embedded in membranes allow various functions to be carried out

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15
Q

protein pores

A

transport molecule that contains pores, the provide channels for specific substances to diffuse across membrane

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16
Q

active transport

A

the movement of molecules and ions across the cell membrane from a low to high concentration, against concentration gradient

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17
Q

enzymes in membrane

A

some protein molecules are embedded in membrane of phospholipids, enzymes catalyse the steps in a metabolic process essential to cell

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18
Q

protein pores allow ___________ diffusion

A

selective

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19
Q

pumps allow __________ _____________

A

active transport

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20
Q

enzymes in membrane __________ reactions

A

catalyse

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21
Q

smaller compartments have __________ volume to surface area ratio

A

larger

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22
Q

high surface area of membranes allows:

A

the high concentration of substances to be maintained and faster reaction rates to be achieved

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23
Q

how does high surface area of membranes allow high concentration of substances to be maintained?

A

as they are involved in the active transport of substances

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24
Q

how does high surface area of membranes allow faster reactions rates to be achieved?

A

as they can provide surfaces for metabolic reactions

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25
Q

enzymes ________ the activation energy and by doing so increase the reaction rate

A

lower

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26
Q

affinity

A

an attraction or force between particles that cause them to combine

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27
Q

the substrate binds readily to the enzyme because it has ________ ___________ for the active site

A

high affinity

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28
Q

the product is released because it has a _____ __________ for the active site

A

low affinity

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29
Q

induced fit of enzymes

A

when the active site changes shape to create a tighter fit around substrate, returns to original shape after product is released

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30
Q

ways of increasing rate of enzyme activity

A

changing temperature towards optimum, changing pH towards optimum, increasing substrate concentration

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31
Q

ways of decreasing substrate concentration

A

changing temperature away from optimum, changing pH away from optimum, decreasing substrate concentration, use of an inhibitor

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32
Q

why does the reaction rate increase as the substrate concentration increases?

A

because more of the available active sites can become occupied by substrate molecule

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33
Q

when does the reaction rate become constant

A

when the concentration is reached whereby all active sites are occupied

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34
Q

in a metabolic pathway the product of each enzyme reaction is the ___________ for the next

A

substrate

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35
Q

the direction in which the reaction proceeds at any given time depends on the _____________ ___ _________ and product present

A

concentration of substrate

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36
Q

metabolic pathways can be controlled by ______________ _______ __________________ signalling molecules

A

intracellular and extracellular

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37
Q

to control a metabolic pathway the rate of ____________ __________ must be controlled

A

enzyme action

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38
Q

non-competitive inhibitor

A

completely changes the active site so no matter how much you increase substrate concentration it wont increase enzyme activity

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39
Q

competitive inhibitor

A

slowly the substrates out compete the inhibitor so it will increase to same end point as having no inhibitor but slower

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40
Q

competitive inhibitors bind on the _______ _____ of the enzyme

A

active site

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41
Q

structure of ATP

A

composed of one molecule of adenosine bonded to three molecules of inorganic phosphate

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42
Q

importance of ATP

A

it is the link between catabolic and anabolic reactions, it also provides energy for other cellular processes e.g. active transport

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43
Q

what is phosphorylation?

A

the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule

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44
Q

what is an example of phosphorylation?

A

the regeneration of ATP

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45
Q

phosphorylation is a common mechanism used to __________ __ _________ proteins within a cell

A

activate or deactivate

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46
Q

the phosphate from phosphorylation can be supplied by the breakdown of _____

A

ATP

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47
Q

cellular respiration

A

a series of metabolic pathways which brings about the release of energy which is stored as ATP

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48
Q

dehydrogenase enzymes

A

are involved in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, they remove H+ ions and electrons from compounds

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49
Q

what happens to the H+ ions and electrons after they are removed by dehydrogenase enzymes?

A

then passed to coenzymes NAD or FAD

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50
Q

what are the H+ ions and electrons used for?

A

to generate ATP during ATP synthesis

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51
Q

first stage of respiration

A

glycolysis

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52
Q

second stage of respiration

A

the citric acid cycle

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53
Q

third stage of respiration

A

the electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthesis

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54
Q

what happens during glycolysis?

A

occurs in cytoplasm, intermediates are phosphorylated before ATP is generated, NET gain of 2ATP, NADH generated

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55
Q

what happens during the citric acid cycle?

A

occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria, acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate, citrate is formed, H+ ions and electrons are accepted by NAD and FAD, 2ATP and CO2 is generated

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56
Q

what happens during the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis?

A

receives H+ ions and electrons from coenzymes NAD and FAD

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57
Q

what are the two stages of glycolysis?

A

energy investment phase, energy payoff phase

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58
Q

what happens in energy investment phase?

A

the intermediates are phosphorylated and 2 molecules of ATP are used to provide phosphates for the phosphorylation

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59
Q

what happens in the energy payoff phase?

A

4 molecules of ATP are produced and the hydrogen ions and electrons are released and accepted by NAD

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60
Q

what happens during breakdown of pyruvate?

A

pyruvate is broken down into an acetyl group and carbon dioxide, the acetyl group combines with a molecule of coenzyme A and produces acetyl coenzyme A, more hydrogen ion and electrons are released and accepted by NAD

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61
Q

what happens to the carbon dioxide from the breakdown of pyruvate?

A

it is released as a by product

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62
Q

where does the electron transport chain occur?

A

inner membrane of the mitochondria

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63
Q

what do the NADH and FADH2 also release doing ETC?

A

high energy electrons which provide energy for the active transport of H+ ions across the membrane

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64
Q

what happens to the electrons after they come out of ETC?

A

they combine with oxygen, the final electron acceptor, and at the same time oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions to form water

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65
Q

what happens during ATP synthesis?

A

hydrogen ions that have been pumped across membrane diffuse back into the matrix of the mitochondria through protein ATP synthase causing part of protein to spin, enzyme ATP synthase is able to catalase regeneration of ATP from ADP+Pi

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66
Q

what happens if oxygen is absent, for animals?

A

the pyruvate is converted into lactate (lactic acid)

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67
Q

what happens if oxygen is absent, for plants and yeast ?

A

the pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide

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68
Q

metabolic rate

A

the energy consumed by an organism per unit time

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69
Q

how can energy consumption be measured indirectly?

A

rate of oxygen consumption, rate of carbon dioxide production, rate of heat production

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70
Q

respirometer

A

measures changes to air being pumped through a sealed chamber for example oxygen and carbon dioxide content and temperature

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71
Q

calorimeter

A

measures temperature change of water being passed through a sealed chamber

72
Q

_______ metabolic rates require efficient delivery of oxygen to cells

A

high

73
Q

circulatory system of fish

A

have a single circulatory system, one atrium on ventricle. The blood is delivered at high pressure to the gills after being pumped from the heart but is at low pressure by the time it reaches the body

74
Q

circulatory system of amphibians and reptiles

A

have an incomplete double circulatory system. 2 atriums and one ventricle. some mixing of oxygenated blood from the lungs and deoxygenated blood from body occurs in the ventricle, tissue blood in incompletely oxygenated

75
Q

circulatory system of mammals and birds

A

have a complete double circulatory system. 2 atriums and ventricles completely separated by a septum

76
Q

which is the most efficient circulatory system?

A

mammals and birds, it enables an endothermic (warm blooded) vertebrate to deliver large quantities of oxygen to respiring tissues which release heat during metabolism and keep its body warm

77
Q

organism will be either one of two categories, conformers or ___________

A

regulators

78
Q

conformers

A

cannot alter their metabolic rate and conform to the condition in the environment, their internal environment is dependent upon the external environment

79
Q

regulators

A

alter their metabolic rate to maintain a steady state, they regulate their internal environment

80
Q

conformers have low __________ _____ as they do not expend energy maintaining their internal environment

A

metabolic cost

81
Q

where must conformers live?

A

in stable environments as they are less adaptable

82
Q

how can conformers maintain an optical metabolic rate?

A

using behavioural responses, for example lizards sunbathe to control body temperature

83
Q

conformers have a _________ ecological niche

A

narrow

84
Q

regulators occupy a vast range of __________ _______

A

ecological niches

85
Q

example of a conformer

A

spider crab, pros are that it doesn’t need much energy, cons are that it is unable to osmoregulate and dies in water that is less salty that sea water

86
Q

example of a regulator

A

shore crab, pros are that animal is able to osmoregualte and survive in estuaries which is less salty than sea water, cons are that it has to find more food to provide energy expended during osmoregulation

87
Q

to maintain homeostasis, organisms require ____________ ______________

A

negative feedback

88
Q

Negative feedback

A

System of maintaining homeostasis in a regulator organism

89
Q

thermoregulation

A

Use of negative feedback in regulation of body temperature in mammals. Either ectotherms or endotherms

90
Q

ectotherms

A

are unable to regulate body temperature

91
Q

examples of ectotherms

A

fish, amphibians and reptiles

92
Q

endotherms

A

are able to regulate body temperature, maintain temperature in the best range for enzyme controlled reactions and optimises diffusion rates

93
Q

examples of endotherms

A

mammals and birds

94
Q

how the hypothalamus controls temperature?

A

the skin has thermo receptors that detect changes in the temperature, nerve impulses sent to the hypothalamus relaying this information, the hypothalamus also contains thermo, hypothalamus sends out nerve impulses to effectors to return body temp to normal levels receptors

95
Q

the two main mechanisms employed by the skin to regulate body temperature in a mammal

A

vasodilation, vasoconstriction

96
Q

vasodilation

A

the blood vessels that supply blood to the skin dilate (widen), increasing the amount of blood flowing to the skin. this increases the surface area from which heat can be lost to environment by radiation

97
Q

vasoconstriction

A

Blood vessels supplying blood to the skin constrict ( narrow) reducing the amount of blood flowing to the skin. as a result less heat is lost by radiation from the surface of the body

98
Q

how else does the body cool down?

A

sweat glands in the skin secrete sweat which cools the body down when it evaporates from the skin, decreasing metabolic rate as it reduces the amount of heat energy produced

99
Q

how else does the body warm up?

A

less sweat is produced to conserve heat, shivering warms the body up, as does increasing the rate of metabolism (generates more heat energy)

100
Q

dormancy

A

a period of suspended growth and development in response by the organism to tolerate adverse conditions

101
Q

predictive dormancy

A

when an organism becomes dormant before the arrival of the adverse conditions

102
Q

example of predictive dormancy

A

many trees respond to decreasing day length and temperatures by shedding leaves and entering dormancy

103
Q

consequential dormancy

A

when an organism becomes dormant after the arrival of the adverse condition

104
Q

example of consequential dormancy

A

snails enter dormancy during extremely dry periods

105
Q

hibernation can be consequential or ________________

A

predictive

106
Q

what does hibernation allow animals (usually mammals) to survive?

A

adverse cold conditions

107
Q

what happens during hibernation?

A

the animals metabolic rate drops with a resulting decrease in body temperature, heart rate and breathing rate

108
Q

the bare minimum of energy is used during hibernation for what?

A

to maintain vital cellular activities using fat stores built over the summer

109
Q

example of an animal that hibernates

A

hedgehogs

110
Q

aestivation is an example of ________________ dormancy

A

consequential

111
Q

what does aestivation allows animals to survive?

A

periods of excessive drought or heat during the summer

112
Q

two examples of animals that go through aestivation

A

crocodiles and land snails

113
Q

daily torpor

A

a period of reduced activity and metabolism in organisms as part of a 24 hour cycle. additional decrease in breathing rate, body temperature and heart rate

114
Q

torpor decreases the rate of ___________ _________________ at a time when searching for food would likely be unsuccessful or risk of predation is too high

A

energy consumption

115
Q

what kind of animals is daily torpor often found in?

A

organisms with high metabolic rate

116
Q

example of animal that goes through torpor

A

bats are torpid during the day and feed at night

117
Q

migration

A

is the regular movement by the members of a species from one place to another over a relatively long distance

118
Q

migration avoids ______________ __________ caused by shortage of food and low temperatures by expanding energy to relocate to a more suitable environment

A

metabolic adversity

119
Q

what does long distance migration normally involve?

A

an annual round trip between two regions that both provide favourable condition for each part of the year

120
Q

when studying long distance migration what do biologists want to find out?

A

when the animal migrated, where they overwintered,whether or not they returned to their original summer territory, how long they lived for

121
Q

specialised techniques for studying migration

A

ringing with metal bands, tagging, colour marking, tracking using transmitters

122
Q

ringing with metal bands

A

a metal band carrying a birds individual identification number is attached to birds leg. of the bird is recaptured then its information can be recorded

123
Q

tagging

A

a small circular tag is attached to the hind wing of a monarch butterfly. this carries a code entered in a database. if the tag is recovered at a later date, the route and distance covered by the butterfly can be determined

124
Q

colour marking

A

the use of bright coloured marks ( and flags on larger birds) has allowed biologists to observe the birds with binoculars without needing to recapture them

125
Q

tracking using transmitters

A

lightweight transmitters are glued to the animals body or implanted under its skin. the transmitter emits signals that are picked up by satellites, signals are beamed back to ground stations

126
Q

advantage of tracking using transmitters

A

they provide the most accurate information so far on the exact locations of flyways used by birds during their migratory cycle

127
Q

disadvantage of tracking using transmitters

A

are expensive and may have a drag effect on some small birds

128
Q

inate behaviour

A

is inherited and inflexible. this pattern of behaviour is performed in the same way by every member of the species

129
Q

learned behaviour

A

begins after birth and is gained by experience. it is flexible and occurs as a result of trial and error and the transmission of knowledge and skills among the members of a social group

130
Q

what are considered microorganisms?

A

archaea, bacteria and some species of eukaryotes

131
Q

in general why are microorganisms used?

A

because of their adaptability, ease of cultivation and speed of growth

132
Q

microorganisms include species that can sue a wide variety of substances for metabolism and produce a range of __________ from their metabolic pathways

A

products

133
Q

why microorganisms are useful?

A

they are easy to cultivate, they reproduce and grow quickly, their food substrate is often A cheap substance (or even A waste product from another source ), they produce many different useful products, their metabolism can be manipulated relatively easily

134
Q

microorganisms are normally grown under controlled conditions in a laboratory, they can be grown in two ways:

A

in a growth medium called broth jar, on a solid medium called agar jelly

135
Q

all processes will provide the following growth requirements:

A

energy source ( chemical or light), simple chemical compounds, suitable environmental condtions

136
Q

why must simple chemical compounds be provided?

A

microorganisms being grown in culture must be provided with this for the biosynthesis of more complex molecules

137
Q

some microorganisms can synthesis all the ____________ ________ e.g. amino acids they require if provided with simple chemical compounds

A

complex molecules

138
Q

other microorganisms must be provided with complex compounds as they are unable to synthesis, such as _______ ______ and ____________

A

fatty acids and vitamins

139
Q

sulphur is a chemical requirement, where can it be sourced and why is it needed?

A

can be sourced from a compound containing sulphate group. it is needed for the synthesis of some amino acids

140
Q

factors that need to be controlled:

A

sterility (eliminate contaminants), temperature, concentration of oxygen, pH, glucose concentration

141
Q

what does using a fermenter allow?

A

a variety of environmental conditions to be monitored and controlled. this is done by computers when industrial sized fermenters are used

142
Q

generation time

A

the time required for a population of unicellular organism to double in number

143
Q

why does the pattern of growth of a population of microorganisms change over time?

A

nutrients provided are used up, metabolites produced by the microorganisms being secreted (released outside the cell)

144
Q

growth of microorganism (phases of growth)

A

lag phase, log/exponential phase, stationary phase, death phase

145
Q

lag phase

A

little to no increase in cell numbers. the cells are adjusting to growth medium and show increased metabolic activity, they are making substrates and turning on enzymes. flat line

146
Q

the enzymes may need to be ________ in the lag phase for use in metabolising the new substrates

A

induced

147
Q

log/exponential phase

A

the cells grow and multiply as maximum rate, providing there is no limiting factor. steep incline line

148
Q

stationary phase

A

nutrients begin to run out and/or secondary metabolites produced by the microbe start to build up. at this point the rate of production of new cells is equal to the rate of death of old cells. line is level.

149
Q

what happens when there is a build up of secondary metabolites?

A

it can have a toxic effect and causes rate of cell division to decrease

150
Q

death phase

A

the lack of nutrient substrate and/or the accumulation of high concentration of toxic metabolites leads to death phase. number of cells dying now exceeds the number of new cells being produced. steep decline

151
Q

total cell count

A

the number of cells in a culture

152
Q

viable cell count

A

the number of living cells in a culture

153
Q

secondary metabolites

A

substances produced which are not associated with growth but can confer an ecological advantage

154
Q

example of secondary metabolite

A

penicillin, antibiotic stops fungi from getting infected

155
Q

wild strains (wild type)

A

the phenotype of a species as it occurs in nature

156
Q

one way wild strains be improved?

A

selecting particular strains by repeatedly subculturing those with the most desirable characteristics.

157
Q

increase _____________ (mutation rate) using mutagenic agents such as UV, radiation and mutagenic chemicals also improves wild strains

A

mutagenesis

158
Q

another way to improve wild strains is by genetic modification using ______________ _____ _____________

A

recombinant DNA technology

159
Q

what is recombinant DNA?

A

DNA created artificially

160
Q

genetic alteration of bacteria

A

plasmids and chromosomal DNA can be transferred between cells or taken up from the environment

161
Q

restriction endonuclease

A

an enzyme extracted from bacteria which is used to cut up the DNA into fragments

162
Q

selection markers

A

can be fluorescent proteins or genes for antibiotic resistance, scientists can select the cells that are for example glowing green and know they also contain gene of interest

163
Q

restriction site

A

a site that is cut open by restriction enzymes to allow the gene to be transferred or be inserted

164
Q

sticky end

A

a specific short sequence of DNA bases that is cut by restriction enzyme

165
Q

vector

A

recombinant plasmids and artificial chromosomes are used as these to carry DNA between organisms

166
Q

marker genes

A

a gene that is used by scientists to identify if recombinant DNA has been taken up into cells

167
Q

regulatory sequences

A

a sequence of DNA that controls the expression of a gene

168
Q

origin of replication

A

the site on a plasmid that allows it to control its own replication (self- replication)

169
Q

artificial chromosomes

A

DNA that has been created artificially that allows for longer sequences of DNA to be transferred between organisms

170
Q

ligase

A

combines complementary sticky ends on the vector with the target sequence e.g. seals the gene into the plasmid

171
Q

what is a limitation of using eukaryotic animal/plant recombinant DNA in prokaryotic cells?

A

when the eukaryotic gene is expressed in the prokaryotic cells the required polypeptide may fold incorrectly or may lack post translational

172
Q

how can limitations be reduced?

A

by using recombinant eukaryotic yeast cells instead of bacteria

173
Q

sometimes genes that improve the ______________ of the organism can be inserted

A

function

174
Q

genes can also be added that prevent the __________ of the microorganisms in an extern environment (outside of the lab)

A

survival

175
Q

feedback inhibition

A

when an end product inhibits the activity of an enzyme that catalysed a reaction earlier in the pathway that produced it

CfE Higher Biology (3 decks)

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