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CfE Higher Biology > Unit 1 - DNA & The Genome > Flashcards

Unit 1 - DNA & The Genome Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is the subunit of DNA

A

nucleotide

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2
Q

What sugar is found in a DNA nucleotide

A

deoxyribose

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3
Q

To which carbon (number) is the base attached

A

1

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4
Q

To which carbon (number) is the phosphate attached

A

5

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5
Q

To which carbon (number) is the phosphate on the next nucleotide attached

A

3

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6
Q

name the structure DNA forms

A

double stranded, double helix

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7
Q

what describes the strands in DNA

A

anti-parallel

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8
Q

name all 4 bases in DNA

A

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

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9
Q

Give the complementary base pairing in DNA

A

A to T and G to C

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10
Q

what type of bond connects complementary base pairs

A

Hydrogen

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11
Q

what type of bond connects sugars to phosphates in DNA

A

(strong) covalent

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12
Q

The repeating sugar - phosphate structure is called the..

A

backbone

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13
Q

what cell type contains a membrane bound nucleus

A

eukaryote

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14
Q

what cell type lacks a nucleus

A

prokaryote

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15
Q

what DNA structures does a prokaryote contain

A

single circular chromosome and plasmids

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16
Q

what organelles contain DNA

A

nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondria

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17
Q

what form are the chromosomes in, in eukaryotic cells

A

linear

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18
Q

what form do the chromosomes take in chloroplast and mitochondria

A

circular

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19
Q

Name the proteins which eukaryotic chromsomes are associated with

A

histones

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20
Q

what is the charge on DNA strands

A

negative

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21
Q

what is the charge on histones

A

positive

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22
Q

why is yeast considered a ‘special’ form of eukaryote

A

it contains plasmids

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23
Q

what enzyme extends the strand in DNA replication

A

DNA polymerase

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24
Q

what enzyme joins together fragments on the lagging strand

A

ligase

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25
Q

what end of the DNA can DNA polymerase synthesise in a continuous strand

A

Adds to the 3’ end / Reads from 5’

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26
Q

what are the 2 strands called during DNA replication

A

leading and lagging

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27
Q

what is required to bind to the DNA strand for DNA polymerase to bind

A

primers

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28
Q

what are the primers made of in DNA replication

A

RNA

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29
Q

what enzyme untwists and ‘unzips’ the DNA during replication

A

helicase

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30
Q

List the 5 requirements for DNA replication

A

ATP, free DNA nucleotides, enzymes (helicase, ligase and DNA polymerase), Parental/Template DNA strand, primers

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31
Q

what is the name for the form of replication used by DNA

A

semi-conservative (replication)

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32
Q

what is the name of the structure formed where helicase breaks the bases

A

replication fork

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33
Q

what bonds break during DNA replication

A

Hydrogen bonds (between the complementary base pairs)

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34
Q

what does PCR stand for

A

Polymerase Chain Reaction

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35
Q

what is the purpose of PCR

A

to amplify a specific sequence of DNA

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36
Q

what is the purpose of primers in PCR

A

to bracket the required sequence

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37
Q

what is unusual about the DNA polymerase used in PCR

A

it is heat tolerant

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38
Q

what temperature does DNA denature at in PCR

A

92-98oC

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39
Q

what happens at 92-98oC

A

DNA denatures/DNA strands separate

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40
Q

what temperature do primers anneal at in PCR

A

50-65oC

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41
Q

what happens at 50-65oC in PCR

A

primers anneal

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42
Q

what temperature is the DNA strand extended at in PCR

A

70-80oC

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43
Q

what happens at 70-80oC in PCR

A

DNA strand is extended

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44
Q

what techinique can be used to separate different sizes of DNA fragment

A

gel electrophoresis

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45
Q

name 3 things that PCR can be used for

A

forensic investigations, paternity suits, testing for genetic disorders, (Covid-19 testing)

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46
Q

what 2 processes are involved in gene expression

A

transcription and translation

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47
Q

the pattern of gene expression determines what in an individual

A

phenotype

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48
Q

as well as genotype, what else impacts on an individuals phenotype

A

environmental factors

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49
Q

modifications to DNA which do not change the sequence are what type of change

A

epigenetic

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50
Q

all of the alleles present defines the …

A

genotype

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51
Q

different forms of gene are called

A

alleles

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52
Q

a signal from inside the cell that alteres gene expression is called

A

intracellular

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53
Q

a signal from outside the cell that alters gene expression is called

A

extracellular

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54
Q

name the 3 main forms of RNA used in gene expression

A

tRNA, mRNA, rRNA

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55
Q

where do you find rRNA

A

ribosome

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56
Q

which form of RNA is found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm

A

mRNA

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57
Q

what is the sugar found in RNA

A

ribose

58
Q

What difference in bases is there between DNA and RNA

A

thymine is replaced with Uracil

59
Q

how many strands do you find in DNA and RNA

A

2 in DNA, 1 in RNA

60
Q

what enzyme creates the primary transcript in transcription

A

RNA polymerase

61
Q

what functions (4) does RNA polymerase carry out

A

Untwists and Unzips gene, pairs up nucleotides and forms backbone

62
Q

what is name for a triplet of bases on DNA/mRNA

A

codon

63
Q

what is the name for the triplet of bases found on tRNA

A

anti-codon

64
Q

what 2 main structural sites are needed on a tRNA molecule

A

anticodon and amino acid attachment site

65
Q

what is the name of the sequence RNA polymerase binds to to start transcription

A

promotor

66
Q

what process alters a primary transcript to a mature transcript

A

splicing

67
Q

what process allows one gene to code for several proteins

A

alternative splicing

68
Q

what sequences are removed during splicing

A

introns

69
Q

what sequences are kept during splicing

A

exons

70
Q

what is important about the sequence of exons during splicing

A

the sequence does not change

71
Q

where does translation take place

A

ribosome

72
Q

what codon types are required during translation (3)

A

start, coding, stop

73
Q

what bond is formed between amino acids during translation

A

peptide

74
Q

give an example of an interaction that helps form the 3D structure of a protein

A

hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds (link across chains), ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals (includes H Bonding)

75
Q

give two properties of a stem cell

A

unspecialised, can self-renew

76
Q

what is the term for a cell changing from unspecialised to specialised

A

differentiation

77
Q

what is the name for unspecialised cells in plants

A

meristems

78
Q

what term describes embryonic stem cells

A

pluripotent

79
Q

what term describes cells which can form all cell types in the organism

A

pluripotent

80
Q

what term describes cells which can form a subset of cell types

A

multipotent

81
Q

what terms describes tissue stem cells

A

multipotent

82
Q

what are tissue stem cells used for in the body (generally)

A

growth and repair

83
Q

name a therapeutic use of stem cell

A

e.g. bone maroow transplants, corneal grafts, skin grafts….

84
Q

name a research use of stem cells as model cells

A

e.g. new drug testing, cell growth, cell differentiation, gene expression…

85
Q

stem cell research involves the destruction of early embryos. What term is used to describe the issues raised from this

A

ethical

86
Q

what contains more sequence in the genome; coding or non-coding DNA

A

non-coding

87
Q

all of the genetic material that can be passed on to offspring is called the…

A

genome

88
Q

give examples of sequences which are transcribed but not translated

A

e.g. tRNA, rRNA, introns

89
Q

give and example of why non-coding sequences needed on the genome

A

e.g. to regulate transcription, bind proteins, fold DNA….

90
Q

a sequence of bases which codes for a protein is called a..

A

gene

91
Q

A random change in DNA is called a..

A

mutation

92
Q

name the 3 single gene mutations

A

substitution, insertion, deletion

93
Q

what is meant by ‘point mutation’

A

a single base change

94
Q

what mutations cause a frame shift

A

insertion and deletion

95
Q

a mutation that creates a stop codon is called a..

A

nonsense mutation

96
Q

a mutation that changes the amino acid coded for is called a ..

A

missense mutation

97
Q

a mutation that does not change the amino acid coded for is called a ..

A

silent mutation

98
Q

a mutation that can result in introns remaining in coding is called a

A

splice-site mutation

99
Q

a mutation that can result in exons being removed from code is a..

A

splice-site mutation

100
Q

name the 4 chromosome mutations

A

deletion, inversion, translocation, duplication

101
Q

A section of chromosome added from a homologous chromosomes whould cause which type of mutation

A

duplication

102
Q

A section of chromosome removed would cause which type of mutation

A

deletion

103
Q

A section of chromosome flipped over cause which type of mutation

A

inversion

104
Q

a section of chromosome moved to a non-homologous chromosome is called

A

translocation

105
Q

duplication allows change in a gene which still retaining original function, what process is this important for

A

evolution

106
Q

the passing of genetic information from parent to offspring is called

A

vertical gene transfer

107
Q

the passing of genetic information between individuals in the same generation is called

A

horizontal gene transfer

108
Q

what type of organism regularly use horizontal gene transfer

A

prokaryotes

109
Q

the non-random increase in the frequency of alleles that favour survival is called

A

natural selection

110
Q

phenotypes which increase the likelyhood of survival are said to have a ..

A

selective advantage

111
Q

give 3 examples of things which can apply a selction pressure

A

e.g. predators, grazers, disease, climate conditions…

112
Q

what are the 3 forms of selection

A

stabilising selection, directional selection, disruptive selection

113
Q

what will happen to the mean and range in stabilising selection

A

mean remains the same, range is decreased

114
Q

what will happen to the mean and range in directional selection

A

the mean will shift and the range will remain the same around the mean (also shifted on axis)

115
Q

what will happen to the mean and range in disruptive selection

A

the range will be split into 2 and 2 distinct means start to develop

116
Q

give two reasons why evolution is faster in prokaryotes

A

horizontal gene transfer and short generation time

117
Q

what is the sequence of events in speciation (4)

A

isolation of gene pools, mutation/variation, natural selection with different selective pressures, many generations

118
Q

what is used as a test for stating speciation has occurred

A

when individuals from one population can no longer produce fertile offspring with the other

119
Q

if an extreme phenotype is selected for, what form of selection occurs

A

directional

120
Q

if the extremes of phenotype are selected against, what form of selection occurs

A

stabilising

121
Q

if the two extremes of phenotype are selected for, what form of selection occurs

A

disruptive

122
Q

what is the source of novel alleles in a population

A

mutation

123
Q

what are the 3 forms of isolation barrier in speciation

A

geographical, behavioural, ecological

124
Q

give an example of a geographical isolation barrier

A

e.g. sea, mountain, canyons….

125
Q

give an example of an ecological isolation barrier

A

e.g. pH, temperature, habitat choice..

126
Q

give an example of a behavioural isolation barrier

A

e.g. reproductive cycles out of sync, active times out of sync…

127
Q

where subpopulations are isolated by geographical barrier the form of speciation is called..

A

allopatric

128
Q

what form of isolation barrier causes allopatric speciation

A

geographical

129
Q

where subpopulations are in the same geographical location what form of speciation can occur

A

sympatric

130
Q

what form of isolation barrier causes sympatric speciation

A

ecological and behavioural

131
Q

the use of comparisons of sequence data and statistical analysis is called..

A

bioinformatics

132
Q

the branch point in a phylogentic tree shows a

A

common ancestor

133
Q

phylogenetic trees normally have a scale in..

A

mya / millions of years ago

134
Q

as well as sequence data, what other evidence is used to track evolution

A

fossil record

135
Q

what can you conclude if there is a high level of conserved sequence between two species

A

that they are closely related

136
Q

what are the three domains of life

A

eukaryotes, prokaryotes, archae

137
Q

what is the universal common ancestor

A

the cell that all life on earth can be tracked back to

138
Q

what is a molecular clock

A

a gene/protein sequence which has a known mutation rate, so divergence can be used to work out time

139
Q

using genetic information to determine choice or dosage of drug is called

A

pharmacogenetics

140
Q

give an ethical issue linked to personal genomics

A

e.g. genetic risk could be used by companies for job/access/insurance. Who ‘owns’ the sequence/information?

CfE Higher Biology (3 decks)

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