Unit 2 - Handwriting Flashcards
5 prerequisite skills that children must have before handwriting instruction begins
- small-muscle development
- eye-hand coordination
- the ability to hold utensils or writing tools
- the capacity to smoothly form basic strokes (circles and lines)
- letter perception (recognizing forms, noting similarities and differences)
Development of Prewriting and Handwriting in Young Children
Scribbles on Paper: 10-12 months
Imitates horizontal, vertical, and circular marks on paper: 2 years
Copies a vertical line, horizontal line, and circle: 3 years
Copies a cross, right oblique line, square, left diagonal line, left oblique line, some letters and numerals, may write own name: 4-5 years
Copies a triangle, prints own name, copies most lowercase letters and most uppercase letters: 5-6 years
3 components of handwriting
- in hand manipulation skills
- sensory processing
- neuromuscular
in hand manipulation skills
the action produced by the hands in relationships to objects held or grasped by the hand
classification of in hand manipulation skills
- Translation – linear movement of the object in the hand from the finger surface to the palm or the palm to the fingers
- Finger-to-Palm Translation – an object is held by the distal fingers and the pad of the thumb and moved into the palm
- Palm-to-Finger Translation – an object is moved from the palm area to the distal finger surface. The thumb moves from a pattern of flexion to extension
Examples:
Picking up a quarter and manipulating it to put in a bank, drink machine
Shift
occurs at the finger and thumb pads with alternating thumb and finger movement. Typically used for fine adjustments to an object after grasp or after use of another in-hand skill. It is used for refinement of an object between the thumb and fingers.
Examples: child holds a marker at midpoint and moves fingers down towards the writing end. Shift with stabilization involves holding one object while shifting another in the same hand.
Rotation
an object is moved around one or more axes, the movement occurs near the pad of the fingers.
• Simple rotation – an object is turned or rolled between the pads of the fingers and thumb, the rotation is less than 180 degrees. Typically the object is rotated to about ¼ or ½ its circumference
• Complex rotation – rotation of an object that requires isolated movements of the fingers and thumb. The object is typically turned 180-360 degrees. Then the object is stabilized by the thumb, the fingers are moving, when it is stabilized by the fingers, the thumb is moving.
Examples: Simple rotation – unscrewing a jar lid, rolling ball of clay at finger tips
Complex rotation – picking up marker from table and rotating 180 degrees or greater to orient writing side towards paper
In-hand skills and young children
• The age period in which the greatest number of skills emerge is between 2 and 2 ½ years of age
• Most in-hand skills without stabilization (ie. complex rotation, shift) are seen in children by the age of 3
• New skills are usually seen first with small-sized objects rather than medium sized or tiny sized.
Medium sized = 1in.
Small = 1/2in to 1 in.
Tiny = less than ½ in.
Sensory processing components
- tactile, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic input
- visual receptive components
- form constancy and visual discrimination
- position in space
- vestibular
Neuromuscular components
- muscle tone
- strength
- postural control
- crossing the midline
- bilateral integration
- laterality
- praxis
FOR - neurodevelopmental
• focuses on children who have inadequate neurodevelopmental organization exhibited by poor postural control, automatic reactions, and/or limb control.
• influenced by problems in muscle tone, inadequate righting and equilibrium responses, poor proximal stability at the shoulder joint.
• Focus of treatment:
Postural activities to regulate muscle tone and prepare limbs for writing
- Increase or decrease tone, Activities to improved proximal stability and co-contraction through the neck, shoulders, elbows, and wrists, animal walks, calisthenics, routine daily tasks, alternate positions during writing, in-hand strengthening activities
FOR - acquistional
• Handwriting can be improved through practice, repetition, feedback, and reinforcement
• Focus of treatment
Structured progression of introducing and teaching letter and numeral forms.
Each child’s program can be individualized to work on “problem” letters
Combine newly acquired letters with previously mastered letters
Includes modeling, tracing, copying, composing (a word or sentence), and self-monitoring and correcting own mistakes
Cues should be faded as the child successfully masters a new letter
FOR - sensory integration
- Controlling sensory input through selected activities to enhance the integration of sensory systems for effective motor outputs
- Using a variety of sensory experience, mediums, and instructional methods
Color changing markers, Paintbrushes, Weighted or vibrating pens, chalk, different surfaces, textures
FOR - behavioral
• Adaptive writing behaviors can be learned in a reinforcing environment
• Reward child with a special certificate for meeting handwriting goals
• Use a “handwriting group” or club with 3-4 children to develop writing and social skills
• Develop readable material for a purpose
Address an envelope to send a letter to a friend
Write a valentine
Make a list of toys for Santa or birthday
FOR - biomechanical
• Sitting posture – the child should be sitting with feet firmly planted on the floor. The table surface should be 2 inches above the flexed elbows when the child is seated in the chair.
- adjusting heights of desks and chairs, providing needed foot rests for children, adding seat cushions or inserts, repositioning a child’s desk to face the chalkboard straight-on
- Paper position – paper should be slanted on the desktop. Right-handed students may slant the top of their paper with the right side higher than left.
- Pencil grasp – the ideal pencil grasp is a dynamic tripod with an open web space. The movement of the pencil is primarily from the thumb, index, and middle fingers moving in flexion and extension.
Grasps and ages
- palmar supinate grasp (1-2)
- digital pronate grasp (2-3)
- static tripod grasp (2.5-4)
- dynamic tripod grasp (4-6)
Children can be functional with an immature grasp. An OT can consider changing the child’s grasp if:
- handwriting results in muscular tension and fatigue
- handwriting formation or speed is impeded by inefficient grasp
- the child’s cannot use controlled and precise finger and thumb movements if the web space is closed
- the child holds the pencil too tight with too much pressure, breaks the lead off the pencil, makes holes in the paper, and needs to “shake-out” the hand repeatedly due to fatigue
gather assessment info - student handwriting samples
- Spelling lessons
- Mathematical worksheets
- Homework
- Compare child’s work to those of same age peers in class completing the same type of work
gather assessment info - interviews with parent, teacher, other team members
• Helps build rapport with teachers and parents
• Helps provide a picture of the child’s capabilities, behaviors, and struggles at school or home
• Sample questions:
What are the student’s educational strengths?
What type of handwriting method is being used?
What do you think is causing the handwriting problem?
When does the child do his/her best writing? Worst writing?
Are there any other daily tasks that the child is having problems with? (ie. scissors and cutting, keeping organized, getting along with peers)
gather assessment info - review of the child’s educational and clinical records
- Past academic performance
- Any special testing accommodations
- Any other educational or medical reports from previous years
gather assessment info - observation of the child when he/she is writing
• Note child’s self-regulation and organizational abilities
• Transition between activities
• Classroom or home arrangement (noise, lighting, instructional media)
• Note problem areas:
Copying or composing original work
Avoidance behaviors when child required to write
Need for constant re-direction or verbal/physical cues
Poor attention and easily distracted
gather assessment info - evaluation of child’s actual performance of handwriting
• In-hand manipulation • Legibility components Letter formation (poor stroke sequence) Alignment – placement of letters and words on and within the writing margins Spacing (between letters, between words) Size consistency Over and under extension of lines Poor re-trace strokes Incomplete closure of letters Reworking of letters Reversals Case consistency
speed of handwriting
1st grade 32 letters per minute (Phelps et al., 1987) <20 letters per minute (Larsen & Hammill, 1989)
2nd grade 35 letters per minute (Phelps et al., 1987) 20-25 letters per minute (Larsen & Hammill, 1989)
4th grade 37 letters per minute (Phelps et al., 1987) 34-40 letters per minute (Larsen & Hammill, 1989)
ergonomic factors
Posture
Upper extremity stability
Pencil grasp
domains of handwriting
Writing the alphabet and numerals from memory
Copying; near-point (nearby model) and far point (distant vertical model)
Manuscript to cursive transition
Dictation
Composition
handwriting assessments
- The Test of Handwriting Skills (THS)
- The Evaluation Tool of Children’s Handwriting (ETCH)
- The Children’s Handwriting Evaluation Scale (CHES)
- The Diagnosis and Remediation of Handwriting Problems (DRHP)
- The Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (MHA)
Test of Handwriting Skills purpose
To provide a measure of a child’s handwriting skills; the child’s neurosensory integration ability in handwriting in either manuscript or cursive in both upper and lowercase forms. It also measures the speed with which a child handwrites. The authors recommend using the THS inconjunction with other evaluative instruments to determine a child’s handwriting skills (or lack of skills).
Assumptions made by authors:
Almost all schools begin manuscript at kindergarten
Manuscript instruction occurs mostly in K, 1st, and 2nd grade. Some teachers continue manuscript instruction into 3rd grade
The 3 main methods of handwriting are D’Nealian, Palmer, Zaner-Bloser
Whole Language
the child is given instruction or correction on handwriting in the context of writing for a theme in school
Ex. – child is writing about monsters and forms “n” incorrectly, teacher corrects and makes suggestions on correct letter formation
Traditional
the child is systematically introduced to each letter outside the context of writing
The Debate on Teaching Manuscript Writing First…
- Manuscript writing is simpler and easier to form (less height variation in each letter)
- Closely resembles print of textbooks and reading materials
- Beginning manuscript is more readable than cursive
- Manuscript is easier to discriminate than cursive letters
The Debate for Teaching Cursive Writing First…
- Cursive allows for faster and more automatic writing
- Reversal of individual letters is more difficult
- Cursive is faster than manuscript
- The fluid lines may be easier for children to write than stop and start manuscript
problem/solution for spacing between letters
- Use finger spacing with index finger
- Use small sticker between letters
- Teach “no letter” touching rule
problem/solution for spacing between words
- Make space with a rubber stamp, larger sticker
2. Use a dot or dash with a marker
problem/solution for spacing on paper
- Use grid paper
2. Write on every other line of paper
problem/solution for placing text on lines (alignment)
- Use raised line paper (or make with colored glue)
2. Use visual cues to prevent over or under extensions
problem/solution for sizing letters
- Use individual boxes for letters
problem/solution for near point copying
- Highlight the text on the worksheet to be copied
2. Teach students to copy 2-3 letters at a time
problem/solution for far point copying
- Enlarge letters to be copied for better viewing
- Start with copying nearby letters, work up to far copying
3 Attach alphabet strip on desktop if copying letters from the board is problematic
problem/solution for composition
- Be certain child can form letters from memory first
2. Talk about story before writing, use picture from magazines, books to help compose story
problem/solution for speed
- Begin assignments before peers
- Work on speed gradually, make sure child feels successful
- Use a timer, put child in charge of timer to help them to learn concept of time
habits of left-handed writers
- A hooked grasp - the wrist bends forward (this positions a child’s fingers above his writing and allows him to see what he is writing). This is a very bad position for writing since it does not allow efficient finger control for good letter formation.
- An “ulnar” grasp - the child holds the pencil between his thumb with all four fingers along the shaft. The pinky finger is closest to the pencil tip. This grasp is undesirable because the pinky must guide pencil movements and the hand is unstable.
Tips For Teaching “Lefties” to Write:
- Position the paper on the desk so it is completely left of the child’s midline. Avoid having the child cross over the midline or reach to right side while writing.
- Angle the paper so that the L side is higher than the right and the forearm lies parallel to the paper. Encourage kids to learn how to position paper themselves. To ensure correct positioning, affix tape to the desk to provide an outline of the position in which a paper should lie.
- Samples for the child to copy should lie on the right side of the paper, not the left.
alternatives to writing
- keyboarding programs
- dictate versus writing answers
- receives copies of material versus handwriting notes
