Unit 2 - Congress

Question 1

Congress

Answer 1

The legislative branch of the US government, they create federal laws, are based on Capitol Hill in Washington DC and is bicameral - consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate

Question 2

Bicameral

Answer 2

Made up of 2 chambers

Question 3

House of Representatives

Answer 3

The lower chamber of congress that is based on the size of the population of the state, there are currently 435 congressmen/congresswomen in total

Question 4

Senate

Answer 4

The upper chamber, there are only 2 senators per state no matter the size and there are currently 100 of them

Question 5

5 key bits of info about the House of Representatives

Answer 5

Represent a congressional district - a region of a state
Serve 2 year terms
Must have been a US citizen for 7 years
Must be a resident of the state they represent
Proportional representation in congress - number of representatives per state can sometimes change based on the size of the districts and them changing

Question 6

5 key facts about the Senate

Answer 6

Represent an entire state
Serve 6 year terms but 1/3 of them are up for re election every 2 years
Must have been a US citizens for at least 9 years
Must be a resident of the state they represent
Equal representation in Congress

Question 7

Why did the founding fathers design Congress in a way so that it has two chambers?

Answer 7

To increase representation in the House of Representatives (John Lockes idea) as the number of representatives depends on the size of the state
Some founding fathers wanted equal representation but some of them wanted more representation in larger states - thats why there are 2 chambers, as a compromise

Question 8

What are the 3 roles of Congress?

Answer 8

Check the president and the executive branch
Create federal laws/pass legislation
Representing the people of their regions/states

Question 9

What are the 10 powers of the congress?

Answer 9

1. Law making
2. Overseeing the executive branch
3. Override the presidents veto
4. Confirming appointments
5. Ratifying treaties
6. Initiating amendments
7. Impeachments
8. Confirming vice presidents
9. Declaring war
10. Electing the president and vice president if there is a deadlock

Question 10

What does powers of the congress mean?

Answer 10

Things that congress is granted the ability to do based on the 3 roles that they have to fulfil

Question 11

What is meant by congress having the powers of law making?

Answer 11

Both houses are equal in passing legislation meaning that all bills must pass through all stages of both houses and they cant override each other - granted in article 1 of constitution

Question 12

What is meant by congress having the power of overseeing the executive branch?

Answer 12

Granted due to it being implied in the constitution, said that a legislative body may investigate any subject that has some power over legislature, through checks and balances - occurs exclusively only in committee rooms

Question 13

What is meant by congress having the power to override the presidents veto?

Answer 13

Both houses must vote by a two thirds majority to override the presidents veto of a bill

Question 14

What is meant by congress having the power to confirm appointments?

Answer 14

The senate alone have the power to confirm (by a simple majority) appointments made y the president like appointing someone to the Supreme Court, the president must seek the senates approval to replace vacancy’s in the federal judiciary

Question 15

What is meant by congress having the power of ratification?

Answer 15

The senate ONLY has the power to ratify (by a two thirds majority) all treaties negotiated by the president so they must be kept fully uniformed throughout treaty negotiations

Question 16

What is meant by congress having the power to initiate amendments?

Answer 16

The houses are co equal when it come to initiating amendments, a constitutional amendment must be approved by a two thirds majority in each before it can be sent for ratification

Question 17

What is meant by congress having the power of impeachment?

Answer 17

Congress can impeach and remove all civil officers of the US for treason, bribery or high crimes - the house initiate the impeachment and can condemn executives for their actions but the senate trial the executive and find them either guilty or innocent - congress cannot be impeached as they are not officer sof the US but representatives

Question 18

What is meant by congress having the power of confirming vice presidents?

Answer 18

Twenty fifth amendment of 1967 gave the power to confirm newly appointed vice presidents and also gave the power to Congress to fill the vacancy of a vice president if the current vice president becomes president

Question 19

What is meant by congress having the power to declare war?

Answer 19

Both houses must agree to declare war (last time it happened was 1941 where US declared war on Japan) but this power has slowly been taken away and given to the president

Question 20

What is meant by congress having the power to elect a president and vice president if there is a deadlock?

Answer 20

If no candidate wins the absolute majority of electoral college votes then the house has the power to elect the president and senate elect the vice president

Question 21

Electoral college

Answer 21

The group of people concerned with electing the president

Question 22

What party has the majority in the House of Representatives?

Answer 22

Republicans

Question 23

Which party has the majority in the Senate?

Answer 23

Democrats

Question 24

Who are the key individuals of the House of Representatives and their roles?

Answer 24

Speaker - Mike Johnson - Republican (speaker always come from the majority party)
Majority Whip - Elise Stefanik - Republican
Majority Leader - Steve Carlisle - Republican
Minority Whip - Katherine Clark - Democrat
Minority Leader - Hakeem Jeffries - Democrat

Question 25

Who are the key individuals of the Senate and their roles?

Answer 25

Majority leader - Chuck Schumer - Democrat
Majority Whip - Dick Durbin - Democrat
Minority Leader - Mitch McConnell - Republican
Minority Whip - John Thune - Republican

Question 26

What are the 3 key roles in both of the houses?

Answer 26

Speaker
Leader
Whip

Question 27

What is the role of the speaker?

Answer 27

The most high profile leadership position in congress, they determine the legislative agenda and choose members of committees, they are second only to the vice president in the line of presidential succession
Can be limited by party and executive - e.g. Paul Ryan resigned as speaker in Nov 2018 due to pressures from executive and because he was trying to push unpopular Trump policies like the border wall
Hastert Rule - Republican convention where a floor vote cannot be done unless a majority of the majority party supports it e.g. used in 2013 by speaker John Boehner to refuse to table a immigration reform bill

Question 28

What is the role of the leader?

Answer 28

They plan the legislative agenda and coordinate their party, trying to achieve party unity to achieve its legislative aims
Legislation that doesn’t have the support of party leaders is unlikely to be successful
2017 - Mitch McConnell who was the majority leader passed tax cuts and jobs act with no involvement from White House

Question 29

What is the role of the Whip?

Answer 29

Assistant leaders who occasionally stand in for leaders in their absence and assist them in their role

Question 30

Why is underrepresentation in Congress viewed as an issue in America?

Answer 30

Some may feel underrepresented and thus legislation may never be passed for the ethnic minorities as 2/3 of the congress may not agree
Some may feel like they dont have a place in politics due to not seeing people like them in congress
Demotivates people from voting

Question 31

Why is there underrepresentation in congress?

Answer 31

-Women and AAs are underrepresented in the state legislatures
-Senators represent whole states so - the house will better represent different types of people due to the congressional districts which may be separated based on different areas being populated with different people BUT senate represent whole states which are often more populated with white, suburban people
-Congress’ cultures and traditions have been slow to adapt making it off-putting to female members (the Senate swimming pool was male-only until 2009)
-Senators have to be physically present to vote adversely affecting new parents, however in 2018 Tammy Duckworth convinced the Senate to change its rules to allow young children in the chamber for parents to vote

Question 32

What are some statistics that prove congress is underrepresented?

Answer 32

27% of congress is women but 51% of the population are women
88% of congress is Christian but 71% of the population is Christian
0.2% of congress are atheist but 23% of the US is atheist
Average age of congress is 59 but its 38 for the US population
99% of congress have a uni degree but only 35% of adults over 25 have a uni degree in the US

Question 33

What are some statistics that prove congress is well represented?

Answer 33

23% of the congress is people of colour and 23% of the US population is people of colour

Question 34

Ear marking

Answer 34

Allows members of congress to fund projects in their local states or districts, they can add amendments to appropriations bills to grant funds

Question 35

When was ear marking reintroduced? Who agreed to its reintroduction?

Answer 35

Reintroduced in 2021 - both republicans and democrats agreed to the reintroduction of earmarking in the House of Representatives

Question 36

What is the effect of earmarking on representation in Congress?

Answer 36

Allows members of congress to use their knowledge of their community to direct funds to where they are most needed - federal officials are less likely to be able to do this as they are less in contact with constituents

Question 37

Negatives of earmarking?

Answer 37

It can however lead to wasteful spending (pork barrel)

Question 38

How did the Democrats reform ear markings when they reintroduced it?

Answer 38

It is not ensured that there strict transparency so that funds aren’t spent to benefit just the representatives and their families - stops people from unfairly dominating funds

Question 39

Pros of the changes to district boundaries in 2021?

Answer 39

The Democrats have a greater majority now (went from 6 to 7)
It’s a fair process in the states that are controlled by more than one party or allow an independent to redraw district lines

Question 40

Cons of the changes to district boundaries in 2021?

Answer 40

Most states that gain seats are Republican leaning and those that lose them are typically Democrat - not fair
States are responsible for redrawing district boundaries but this can lead to gerrymandering (the manipulation of an electoral constituency boundary to benefit one party)
Republicans control redistricting in 20 states whereas the Democrats control only 8
Republicans control the state legislatures in 8 of 13 states that will see a change in the number of seats they have in the 2022 elections
Democrats tried to pass a ‘for the people act’ in 2021 to make independents draw the line boundaries it passed through the house with a small majority but failed the senate

Question 41

Who is Lisa Murkowski?

Answer 41

Republican Senator for Alaska

Question 42

What is the case study of Lisa Murkowski?

Answer 42

She voted against the American healthcare act
She impeached Trump
^^ didnt represent the views of the republicans in her state
Her decisions led to native Americans having their oil licenses in the far north of alaska suspended
^^ didn’t represent the Native Americans in her state well

Question 43

Conclusion: is America well represented in Congress?

Answer 43

Yes - particularly the 117th congress, is very diverse and thus more representative than the predecessors. However, the American society is becoming more and more diverse as each day goes by and congress does its best in catching up and staying as equally diverse, but this is sometimes not doable. Particularly in the senate it may be hard to represent the idea of everyone in the state because there are only 2 per state. I also think te reintroduction of earmarking has been a step towards even more representation as congressmen and congresswomen can better satisfy the needs of their constituents than government officials in the executive branch. However, congress could be rearranged to make it more representative and independent politicians could be used to draw boundary lines rather than members of parties as they will typically be partisans and will re arrange the boundaries for the benefit of their party.

Question 44

How many stages are there of the legislative process?

Answer 44

6 - but the 5th stage is optional - so most commonly 5 stages are used

Question 45

What are the stages of the legislative process?

Answer 45

1. Introduction
2. Committee stage
3. Time tabling
4. Floor debate and the vote on passage
5. Conference committee
6. Presidential action

Question 46

What is the introduction stage of the legislative process?

Answer 46

A pure formality
Involves placing a bill in a ‘hopper’ on the clerks desk
The bills are numbered, printed and circulated to the appropriate standing committee

Question 47

What is the committee stage of the legislative process?

Answer 47

This is the most important stage
More bills fail than at any other stage in the process
Some of the bills are pigeon held (put to one side) with no action being taken due to the volume of bills
The bills with a lot of support are given hearings in the full committee or sub committee, once this is complete, a mark up session is held
Mark up session = changes are made, reports from the committees focus on the cost of the bill, its aims, review amendments and propose next steps

Question 48

What is the timetabling stage of the legislative process?

Answer 48

Every house has only one floor so there is often a traffic jam for bills waiting to be heard
The senate have a unanimous consent agreement where the majority and minority leaders agree on the order bills will be debated to fix this issue
Representatives have house rules committee which can allow or hold back bills - a popular bill may have a discharge petition to be debated immediately e.g. 2015 where one was done to force a vote to reauthorise America’s export-import bank

Question 49

What is the floor debate and vote on passage stage of the legislative process?

Answer 49

Both, full chambers debate the bill
Amendments can be made
Votes are taken at the end of the debate with a simple majority being required
Senators can use filibuster to delay a bill e.g. 2016 - 2 senators spoke for 15 hours to press for tighter gun control
Filibusters can be ended by closure positions (require super majorities) or simple majorities (introduced in 2013) or by banning filibustering e.g. 2017 - in the Neil Gorsuch confirmation into the Supreme Court debate, it was banned

Question 50

What is the conference committee stage of the legislative process?

Answer 50

Declined in popularity over the last 20 years when Republicans took control of both houses and wanted a more leadership driven approach
In this stage, one of the chamber has to endorse the legislation passed by the other, then the bill is sent to the president

Question 51

What is the presidential action stage of the legislative process?

Answer 51

Where the President has 3-4 options of what they can do with the bill

Question 52

What are the 4 options the President has in the presidential action stage of the legislative process?

Answer 52

1. Can sign it into law, if they fully support it and want credit for it e.g. Obamas affordable care act of 2010
2. Can ‘leave the bill on their desk’ if they think their veto will be overridden or if they are indifferent - these bills become law without the presidents signature
3. May veto a bill, can force changes to the bill, where the Congress then puts right the wrongs, they can try override the veto by a two thirds majority or accept the presidents decisions e.g. overrode Bush’s veto of the 2008 Medicare improvements bill
4. Can ‘pocket veto’, if the bill is awaiting action after the legislative session ends, it is lost and cannot be overridden e.g. Clinton in 2000 on the consumer bankruptcy overhaul bill (last time it was used)

Question 53

Why does the legislative process limit congress?

Answer 53

The sheer volume of bills that come into Congress - will never be able to debate them all
Complicated progress - this results in a ‘legislative labyrinth’
There is a need for super majority votes e.g. to stop filibuster or presidential veto
Decentralisation of power in Congress, power shared between both houses and both parties
Both houses possess equal power - different to Parliament as one cannot outrule the other
Both houses can be controlled by different parties - leads to Gridlock
Houses not necessarily controlled by the same party as president - leads to pingponging

Question 54

Filibuster

Answer 54

Debating a bill for a long time so that it cannot be passed or voted upon, its said to protect minorities or help reach a compromise e.g. Senator Strom Thurmond staged one for over 24hrs against the civil rights legislation in 1957 - record time

Question 55

Bill vs Law

Answer 55

Bill - before it becomes law of the land
Law - has become law of the land

Question 56

Why has the legislative process become increasingly difficult?

Answer 56

Partisanship was less common and people could agree on legislation - could amendments and scrutinise it when agreeing
Now it is too difficult due to hyper partisanship, overlaps are less common and amendments are rarely agreed upon

Question 57

Why does the legislative process have to be somewhat difficult?

Answer 57

To ensure that there is no tyranny
So that no unnecessary law is passed that will lead to a waste in government funds or may destroy the political system of the US

Question 58

Why is the legislative process too difficult?

Answer 58

To end filibustering, it requires a super majority - these are highly unlikely due to hyperpartisanship where there is very little overlap
It’s also difficult due to the congress and the president possibly being part of different parties, can’t agree and leads to ping ponging
For a bill to passed it must have a support from the majority, meaning bills for ethnic minorities that aren’t represented in Congress have a little chance of being passed

Question 59

Silent filibuster

Answer 59

Introduced in 1972 by the Senate which means that real filibuster is less common, a senator can filibuster by notifying Senate leaders that they intend to block a vote but only if they have the support of 40 Senators e.g. 2013 - Senator Paul of Kentucky and others held the floor for over a day due to the concerns od the use of aerial drones

Question 60

How does Biden want to change the filibuster?

Answer 60

By making a reform to it, so that filibusters over privacy rights and abortion protections can be removed by a simple majority, but not enough senators support this

Question 61

Power of the purse

Answer 61

The power that belongs to Congress which means they have the ability to control the spending of the federal budget through changing taxation

Question 62

Key info on Power of the Purse?

Answer 62

Only Congress can raise revenue
Ensures that peoples representatives give their consent to taxation where people can make a decision through representatives
All tax bills must start in the House to draw up the bill then the Senate can amend tax bills but they have to be agreed upon by both houses
Congress can refuse to pass the budget - resulting in government shutdowns e.g. 2018 - the last government shut down

Question 63

Case study: 2018 government shutdown

Answer 63

The length of government shutdowns has crept up over the last decade - December 2018 (most recent) lasted 35 days, the longest ever
800,000 workers were affected by the government shutdown
380,000 were furloughed meaning they couldn’t work or get paid
Hurricanes modellers were sent away from the NOAA and government employees who managed forest fires were affected
Science professionals removed - 1,800 NFS staff sent home without the option to work voluntarily
National park service and EPA were furloughed during the shutdown
Businesses are also affected e.g. 10% decline in average spending per household in 2013 shutdown

Question 64

Government shutdown

Answer 64

Anyone who works for the government cannot work and doesnt get paid

Question 65

Reasons why Congress uses power of the Purse effectively?

Answer 65

It is a powerful check on the power of the executive
The executive may make concessions to avoid a shutdown
Shutdowns are relatively rare - President usually agrees to Congress to avoid shutdowns=

Question 66

Reasons why Congress doesnt use Power of the Purse effectively?

Answer 66

Shutdowns are disruptive and can be lengthy if president is stubborn
The threat of shutdown is present during every budget negotiation
Presidents are unable to reduce the size of the federal budget, so US debt continues to increase
Trumps use of emergency powers to bypass Congress has created a precedent for future presidents - he wanted to fund his wall so used executive powers to get the money

Question 67

Oversight

Answer 67

Congressional review and investigation of the activities of the executive branch of government

Question 68

Key info on oversight?

Answer 68

It’s an implied power in the constitution
Congress has given itself 3 powers within oversight
Takes place in committee rooms

Question 69

What are the 3 powers Congress has given itself within oversight?

Answer 69

1. Subpoenaing documents and testimony
2. Holding individuals in contempt
3. Making it illegal to lie in Congress

Question 70

Subpoena

Answer 70

The idea that one must provide all evidence, information and documents to Congress if they wish upon investigation

Question 71

Holding individuals in contempt

Answer 71

The idea that one cannot lie to the Congress or they can be punished

Question 72

What are the 4 powers within oversight?

Answer 72

1. Investigation
2. Confirmation
3. Impeachment
4. Ratification

Question 73

What is meant by investigation in oversight?

Answer 73

Standing and select committees investigate the actions of the executive, committees will hold hearings and can subpoena witnesses to provide information for their investigations

Question 74

What are the positives and negatives of investigations in oversight?

Answer 74

Pros: one cannot lie to Congress or can have a possible prison sentence, Congress can subpoena witnesses, threat of investigation motivates executive to ensure it’s actions are reasonable, televised hearings may occur for government officials & GAO (Government Accountability Office) supports Congress to investigate the executive

Cons: some investigations are used to smear political opposition with bad publicity,some investigations don’t produce tangible results, large workload when overseeing all of executive branch & GAO has reduced in size - staff in the GAO were cut by 45% between 1975 and 2015

Question 75

Example of investigation in oversight?

Answer 75

January 2021 - House Committee on Oversight and Reform requested information on contracts with the federal government regarding purchase of ventilators not suitable for treating Covid - these purchases of nearly $70 million are being investigated for fraud

Question 76

What is meant by confirmation in oversight?

Answer 76

Senate provides advice and consent on presidential appointments

Question 77

What are the positives and negatives of confirmation within oversight?

Answer 77

Pros: Senate confirmation encourages Presidents to nominate a high-quality individual & Undergoes media scrutiny which does a check of the individual’s past

Cons: highly criticised for its politicisation (done on party differences) & president whose party controls the senate generally has their nominees confirmed, even if the nominee is a controversial choice

Question 78

Examples of confirmation in oversight?

Answer 78

When Trumps secretary, billionaire Betsy DeVos displayed a lack of knowledge of basic education policy during her 2017 confirmation hearing and argued that guns in schools would protect students from bears

Question 79

What is meant by impeachment within oversight?

Answer 79

When Congress can investigate and remove executive officials including the president if their actions are deemed unconstitutional, the House start the investigation but the Senate make the final judgment - no President has ever been removed due to impeachment

Question 80

What are the positives and negatives of impeachment in oversight?

Answer 80

Pros: Congress can impeach and try the president for ‘treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanours’

Cons: If not gone to court charges can be dropped, many impeachments can be based on party differences (politicised), if the Presidents party has the majority in the Senate then they may not be penalised

Question 81

Example of impeachment within oversight?

Answer 81

Trump was acquitted by the Senate in his first impeachment trial in a high partisan vote - all but one Republican voting to acquit and all Democrats voting to convict
Trump impeached twice

Question 82

What is meant by ratification within oversight?

Answer 82

The president negotiates treaties but the senate must ratify and confirm them

Question 83

What are the positives and negatives of ratification within oversight?

Answer 83

Pros: president is forced to work with the Senate & Senate has some say over what happens - they are able to reject treaties

Cons: Recent presidents have used their direct authority to bypass ratification and make executive agreements instead of treaties - hinders the power of the Senates oversight

Question 84

Examples of ratification in oversight?

Answer 84

The Senate has rejected many international treaties, like the treaty of Versailles in 1920 and the 1999 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and how they refused to give rights to disabled people

Question 85

Reason why Congress does fulfil their oversight function effectively?

Answer 85

-There is strong oversight during periods of divided government
-Investigations provide high profile scrutiny
-Congress is better able to check a president if he is unpopular ar the end of his presidency
-Impeachment is effective e.g. fear of impeachment and investigation stopping the executive from committing crimes
-President must work closely with the senate during key treaty negotiations
-Senate can refuse to confirm presidential appointments

Question 86

Reason why Congress doesn’t fulfil their oversight function effectively?

Answer 86

-Oversight is weaker during periods of unified government - trifecta - e.g. Trump-Vance administration
-Congress’ lack of popularity makes it difficult to attack a popular president e.g. Trumps impeachment was very unpopular amongst his supporters
-Investigations can be politicised and partisan - based on party differences and biased
-Investigations can yield few results
-No president has ever been removed from office as a result of impeachment
-Political allegiance can influence impeachment trials e.g. Trump
-The Senate has refused to ratify reasonable treaties e.g. rights for disabled people
-The number of oversight employees has been reduced

Question 87

What is a case study of oversight?

Answer 87

January 6th 2021

Question 88

What happened on January 6th 2021?

Answer 88

Donald Trumps supporters stormed the Captiol Building after he lost the election, on the day he was meant to essentially admit defeat in Congress - started as a protest but then developed into a storming of the building after he said he won the election and fraud was committed

Question 89

What did oversight do in the case of January 6th 2021?

Answer 89

-Representatives investigated this e.g. Bennie Thompson - Democrat
-The committee found video evidence where the police were on the ground, they were attacked and stripped from their badges - some were unconscious - videos from bodycams
-Found out that Trump pressured senior officials to reverse the votes including VP Pence - found out there was a phone call alongside the Department for Justice
-Found out that members of the Congress said goodbye to their families and they thought that they would die
-They found out Trump summoned the meeting and wanted the protesters there - said it should be peaceful but followed it up with ‘fight, fight, fight’

Question 90

What will happen after the investigation of January 6th 2021? Positives and negatives

Answer 90

Positives: Trump has been charged with four criminal counts, including conspiracy to defraud the US and conspiracy against the rights of citizens, Department of Justice (DoJ) Special Counsel Jack Smith interprets the Supreme Court to say Trump acted as a private citizen and not as a president when he undertook the alleged scheme to sway the election - doesn’t have immunity

Negatives: Trump has denied wrongdoing and claimed the Biden administration is behind the prosecution - He previously pled not guilty to all charges, Trump launched an appeal in this case, claiming he had broad immunity from prosecution as president - due to a 1982 precedent that recognised immunity in civil cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of Trumps pardon of himself, If Trump wins re-election he could in theory pardon himself or order all these charges to be dismissed

Question 91

Gerrymandering

Answer 91

Redrawing electoral constituency boundaries to benefit one party

Question 92

What are the 6 factors that affect voting in Congress?

Answer 92

1. Political parties
2. The administration
3. Pressure groups
4. Colleagues and staff
5. Personal beliefs
6. Constituents

Question 93

How do political parties affect voting in Congress?

Answer 93

There are party unity votes along party lines due to contentious issues like the Federal Information Systems Safeguard Act 2016
Little incentives to part voting
The number of party votes increased from 45-50% to 78.6% in the 15 years - increased party cohesion and partisanship
Parties can be split e.g. Jim Cooper was a conservative Democrat and often votes in favour of Republicans

Question 94

How does the administration affect voting in Congress?

Answer 94

The administration stays connected with congress and tries to persuade them to vote a certain way
White House can get involved through the office of legislative affairs
They offer favours in return for members voting their way
They speak with both parties as success in Congress occurs when there is bipartisanship

Question 95

How do pressure groups affect voting in Congress?

Answer 95

They make direct contact with any members of Congress to generate public support for their position by making visits or phone calls, or organising rallies etc.
Any money raised in fundraising is used to fund politicians to support the cause of the pressure groups and they try destroy those who arent

Question 96

How do colleagues and staff affect voting in Congress?

Answer 96

Congresspeople rely on staff members with the same views to remember information or research
Senior members mentor newer members
House members can work with other members of their state delegation

Question 97

How do personal beliefs affect voting in Congress?

Answer 97

Many members vote based on their own beliefs and philosophies
Don’t refer to anyone else and don’t succumb to pressures

Question 98

How do constituents affect voting in Congress?

Answer 98

There are 2 model of representation: delegate model (legislators follow constituents preferences) or the trustee model (legislators make their own judgments) - there are constituents with varying views so hard to represent all
Representing constituents is important as congresspeople face reelections every 2 years
Must have a good awareness of views and values of constituents as they must live there

Question 99

The administration

Answer 99

Executive officials who initiate legislation that is voted upon by Congress - known as the cabinet

Question 100

State legislators

Answer 100

Those who make laws for states and often run for Congress

Question 101

What is pork barrel politics?

Answer 101

Undertaking projects that benefit a group of citizens in return for that groups support or campaign donation e.g. if you vote one way, we will give money to fund something for your state/region

Question 102

Example of pork barrel politics?

Answer 102

2005 - Alaskan Senator Ted Stevens’s ’bridge to nowhere’ directed $223 million to building a bridge in a remote town of Ketchikan with a population of 8,900 to the island of Gravina which has a population of 50

Question 103

What way does pork barrel politics affect Congress?

Answer 103

-Policies are funded based on political factors like the seniority or power of the person promoting it rather than its merits
-Some say it enables legislation to move through Congress as it can be used a means of bribing
-It can be good as it led to the passing of the Civil Rights Act 1964 when it was used to overcome the filibuster of the bill in senate

Question 104

Pork barrelling vs earmarking

Answer 104

Earmarking is seen as positive and was rebranded in 2022 as community project funding
Pork barrel politics is seen as a bad thing - connotations of bribery and a waste of funds

Question 105

What are the different types of party leadership?

Answer 105

Majority and minority leader
Majority and minority whip
Speaker of the house

Question 106

What are the 3 ways in which parties may or may not influence voting in Congress?

Answer 106

1. Party leaders
2. Partisanship
3. Caucuses

Question 107

What are reasons why party leaders may influence votes in Congress and encourage partisanship?

Answer 107

-Senate leaders determine who will sit in different committees with the majority leader having the final say, may be biased to their own parties
-they use their powers of persuasion to convince members to support the party’s agenda, may make people vote on party lines
-members can be threatened with withdrawal of party support in their next campaign to in a progress to move up the hierarchy

Question 108

What are reasons why party leaders may not influence votes in Congress and encourage bipartisanship?

Answer 108

-both party leaders must agree on who shall sit in different committees so sometimes work together e.g. January 6th investigative committee - cross party
-not many incentives to vote on party lines from the leaders

Question 109

What are reasons why partisanship may influence votes in Congress and encourage partisanship?

Answer 109

-number of party unity votes has increased drastically since the 2000s
-partisanship is on the rise due to pork barrel politics and bribery for voting one way to get incentives like money or a higher position

Question 110

What are reasons why partisanship may not influence votes in Congress and encourage bipartisanship?

Answer 110

-Problem Solvers Caucus set up in 2017 - promoted bipartisanship
-First Step Act of 2018 - compromise between party leaders on reforms to criminal justice system
-there are cases of a lack of partisanship e.g. Lisa Markowski who voted to impeach Trump and voted against the American Healthcare Act
-CARES Act promoted bipartisanship in times of emergency - stimulated the economy and was passed unanimously
-select committees and other committees have members of both parties - allows them to work more closely - e.g. January 6th Select Committee

Question 111

What are reasons why Caucuses may influence votes in Congress and encourage partisanship?

Answer 111

-House and Senate Caucus’s - there one for each party in each of the chambers - divides the congresspeople
-House Freedom Caucus - 45 conservative Republicans with a commitment to limited government - opposed Trumps budget in 2018 that forced Republicans to rely on Democrats
-Congressional Progressive Caucus - 100 progressive Democrats

Question 112

What are reasons why Caucuses may not influence votes in Congress and encourage bipartisanship?

Answer 112

-Problem Solvers Caucus
-Congressional Black Caucus - consists of 55 members from both parties (even though there are only 4 Republicans in it)
-Bipartisan Heroin Task Force

Question 113

Party unity votes

Answer 113

All members of a party voting the same, one way or another

Question 114

Caucus

Answer 114

Members of Congress who work together to achieve similar legislative aims

Question 115

What are the 3 committees in Congress?

Answer 115

1. Standing committees
2. Conference committees
3. Select committees

Question 116

Why are committees important in US politics?

Answer 116

The role of committees is very important - they play a large role in legislation and Congress wouldn’t work without them
Committee make decisions - house approves the committees

Question 117

What are standing committees and what are their roles?

Answer 117

-Permanent policy specialist committee of Congress splaying key roles in legislation and investigation
-They are divided into sub committees
-Typical senate standing committee has 18 members, typical house standing committee has 30-40 members
-Members seek assignments on committees that are close to the interest of their states of congressional districts
-3 functions of standing committees: conduct investigations in committee policy area, conduct committee stage of the bills in the legislative process, confirm presidential appointments

Question 118

What are the 2 types of standing committees? List examples of sub committees in these standing committees

Answer 118

-E.g. Senate Standing committee - armed services, finance and foreign relations
-E.g. House Standing committee - there is one for budget, veterans affairs and infrastructure

Question 119

What does the Senate Standing Committee on Finance do?

Answer 119

It concerns itself with matters relating to taxation and other revenue measures generally such as the bonded debt of the United States, collection districts, ports of entry and delivery and deposit of public moneys

Question 120

What is a House Rules Committee and what is its roles?

Answer 120

-Only in the house of representatives
-Set rules on bills on how much time they have on the floor and if amendments are allowed to those bills
-An example of a standing committee
-Call open rules to allow unlimited amendments, call closed rules to not allow amendments, call modified rules to limit number of amendments and decide who can propose them as well as what sections can be amended
-Membership of 13 which is weighted in favour of the majority party e.g. 2017 where Pete Sessions chaired it
-Speaker controls the committee and determines what is debated
-The house can force a bill to be debated if an absolute majority of the congresspeople sign a discharge petition
-Gives the minority party less ability to shape policy

Question 121

How many bills were closed bills in 2017-2019?

Answer 121

2017-2019 - 56% of bills were debated under closed rules

Question 122

What is a conference committee and what are its roles?

Answer 122

-They are required for both houses to have an equal power
-These committees are set up in the conference stage of the legislative process
-They are required to pass bills through both houses concurrently
-By the time the bill has passed through each house, there is different versions of it
-Conference committee is set up to consider and choose only one of the bills that are produced at the end of each house
-Conferees are drawn from both houses and their function is to reconcile the differences between the house and the senate versions of the bill
-They are set up only once ‘ad hoc’ and they have declined in popularity since 1992

Question 123

What are select committees and their roles?

Answer 123

-These are sometimes known as special or investigative committees, they are set up to investigate a particular issue, they are often created within one chamber but there are sometimes joint select committees
-They investigate if the standing committees doesn’t cover that policy area or if the policy the standing committee investigates is time consuming
-There are some permanent select committees, there are 4 in the senate and 1 in House, there is one for intelligence in both
-They are generally temporary and focus on specific, urgent issues unlike the UK where they’re responsible for oversight and in particular one area of policy
-They dont work on legislation but investigate the issue in question same as UK
-They are a powerful incentive for the executive to ensure its actions are constitutional by providing detailed hearings
-Investigations can be politicised - said to be based on party differences - reduces credibility and can be divided in their reports
-Reports may be divided and unclear - doesn’t effectively oversee the executive branch

Question 124

What is an example of a select committee?

Answer 124

-2014 House Select Committee on Events Surrounding the 2012 Terrorist Attack in Benghazi
-it caused the death of the American ambassador of LIbya, and three other Americans
-Hillary Clinton questioned in 2015 for 11 hours as she was foreign secretary at the time
-reports finished in 2016 but were divided based on party lines

Question 125

What are Committee Chairs?

Answer 125

A congressperson who appears in standing committees, they are always drawn from the majority party of each house. This role brings powers, perks and publicity and is seen as the pinnacle of congressional careers.

Question 126

Based on what rule are committee chairs chosen?

Answer 126

Seniority rule = the chair of a congressional standing committee is the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on that committee
The public does not elect these - somewhat not fair

Question 127

What have republicans done to change the way committee chairs work? Positives and negatives?

Answer 127

They introduced a three term limit (the chair can serve for 6 years)
So, when they are in the majority, House Republicans use a Steering Committee to determine committee chairs
Positives: avoids having a power hoarding system where one holds too much power
Negatives: it prevents them from developing a lot of expertise in that area meaning that they cannot perform oversight as effectively as Democrats

Question 128

What are the powers of committee chairs?

Answer 128

Controlling the committees agenda
Control the budget
Influence bills and meetings
Supervise meetings
Serve as a spokesperson

Question 129

What is an example of a perk of being a committee chair?

Answer 129

E.g. Pete Sessions (served 2013-2019) received millions of dollars from pressure groups and corporate donors and prevented amendments that would have relaxed federal laws against marijuana

Question 130

What are the powers that the Senate and the House share?

Answer 130

-Impeachment
-Declare war
-Law making
-Oversee executive branch
-Override the veto
-Play a role in appointed the president and vice president if there is an electoral college deadlock
-Elect vice president if the vice president becomes president
-Initiate amendments

Question 131

What are the powers that belong to the Senate alone?

Answer 131

-Ratification
-Confirm appointments
-Make the final decision if the executive official should be impeached
-Elect vice president in a deadlock
-Amend money bills

Question 132

What are powers that belong to the House alone?

Answer 132

-Start impeachments
-Elect President in a deadlock
-Only house can initiate money bills

Question 133

Reasons why the Senate is more prestigious than the House?

Answer 133

-30 years old - have to have more experience
-They have more powers than the House
-There are only 100 representatives so it’s harder to become one
-6 years in senate so they have more time to fulfil their promises and their beliefs
-People want to more from the house to senate, not the other way around however e.g. Claude Pepper was a senator and supported the new deal but was not reelected as he was too left wing so became a representative
-Senators have a higher public profile as there’s only 2 of them per state
-More likely to get a leadership role such as committee chairs there is fewer to choose from
-Obama & Biden came from the Senate and so have other presidents
-Vice presidents also come from the senate (4 of the last ones) like Kamala Harris

Question 134

Reasons why the Senate is not more prestigious than the House?

Answer 134

-House have 2 year terms so they have more pressure on them to fulfil their policy promises
-Both houses have the same powers in a lot of cases e.g. both have to approve initiating amendments, both represent, both conduct oversight
-Both receive the same salary
-Both have equal power in passing legislation - Congress’s key function
-AOC - a lot of coverage on her even though she’s a representative and not a senator - they can have equally the same coverage

Question 135

What are the 5 criterion that can be used to compare the legislatures of the UK and the US?

Answer 135

1. How far they resemble their voters
2. How well they represent their voters
3. How effective their scrutiny of the executive is
4. How efficient their law making is
5. How well regarded they are by voters

Question 136

Compare how far the legislatures of the UK and the US resemble their voters.

Answer 136

UK - Largely more male, white and older but becoming diverse, Representation of women is better than America, 13% of MPs from ethnic backgrounds compared to 14% of the electorate, Less gender divergence, Better resembles than Congress, represented in the lords with 6% of them being from ethnic minorities, Average age of lords is 70 and age of commons is 51, doesnt represent females well: 29% of lords is female, 40% of commons is female. Ethnic minorities are particularly under represented in the lords with 6% of them being from ethnic minorities, 29% MPs in the UK have been private schooled compared to the 5% of the public

US - largely more male white and older but becoming more diverse, 1/4 of Congress female after 2020 election compared to half of the electorate, 1/4 of Congress from ethnic backgrounds compared to 33% of electorate, Disparity between parties is more extreme with fewer female republicans, average age of Congress is 60 but 38 for population and only 27% of the congress is female but 51% of the population is female

Question 137

Compare how well the legislatures of the UK and the US represent their voters.

Answer 137

UK - doesnt have a representative system of electing MPs as they use first past the post where an MP may be elected even if a lot of constituents didnt vote for them, lords not elected so dont represent, more representatives for a smaller population, regress of grievances, regular surgeries, majoritarian system so two largest parties are overrepresented but there is a broader range of parties in parliament

US - can use earmarking to set aside funds for local projects for their constituents, larger population but less representatives e.g. California has 20 million residents per senator whilst in the UK an mp on average governs over 90,000 constituents, majoritarian system so two largest parties are overrepresented and third parties arent present in congress (underrepresented)

Question 138

Compare how effective the legislatures of the UK and the US scrutinise the executive.

Answer 138

UK - fusion of powers where PM is head of the executive and the legislative, can remove through a vote of no confidence, parliamentary questions and PMQs are effective as they are open to the public - allow executive to be held to account regularly rather than once they’ve done something wrong, has select committees (positive and negative), parliamentary sovereignty, PM must be aware of the power of backbenchers, PM must enjoy the confidence of the House of Commons

US - checks and balances more effective, separation of powers, checks and balances does lead to gridlock so may not be entirely effective, has the 4 types of oversight, able to checks a president through impeachment which removes the presidents separate mandate, impeachments harder than VoNC due to partisanship, congressional hearings can summon high profile executive officials, documents can be subpoenaed, more power of overriding veto

Question 139

Compare how effective the law making of the legislatures of the UK and the US are.

Answer 139

UK - lack of cooperation between houses leads to Parliamentary ping pong, the commons can overrule the lords, parliamentary sovereignty, healthy majorities, strong party discipline, Parliament can get stuff done, budget vote is a confidence vote so any failures would result in removal from government, push through emergency legislation quickly, PMBs

US - gridlock due to checks and balances, to propose an amendment 3/4 of states must agree, the senate and house have equal power in legislation, filibusters limit the passing of bills and require 3/5ths of senators to invoke closure not a simple majority, bills take a long time to pass, can quickly push through emergency legislation quickly largely ignoring the partisan divide, as seen during the global health epidemic in both countries, hyperpartisanship

Question 140

Compare how well regarded the legislatures of the UK and the US are.

Answer 140

UK - the Lords are not well regarded by voters and they are not well regarded by many MPs, there have even been attempts to remove the House of Lords all together and replace it with a fully elected second chamber e.g. what Keir Starmer had in the manifesto, Other attempts to reform such as white paper in 2007 and free vote 2003, Much of the public do not like parliament due to legislature that is passed possibly negatively effecting them e.g price increases or tax increases such as the poll tax in the 1990, 1 in 7 people in YouGov poll have something positive to say about Lords

US - both chambers are well regarded by voters but the senate is seen by more powerful than the house, in 2020 congress approval rating was 19%

Question 141

Similarities and differences between the legislatures of the UK and the US using a structural approach?

Answer 141

1. Both parts of Congress enjoy significant concurrent power over legislation and have powerful committees however the Commons is the dominant chamber in the UK and the Lords has had few real powers since the 1911 Parliament Act resulting in differences in the effectiveness of the legislative process
2. The executive in the UK is found in the legislature whereas it is completely separate in the US meaning that no member of the US cabinet can be in Congress resulting in differences in the effectiveness of scrutiny
3. In the US more power lies with the 50 states making Congress less important whereas in the UK, Westminster still dominates resulting in differences in their effectiveness

Question 142

Similarities and differences between the legislatures of the UK and the US using a rational approach?

Answer 142

1. Politicians in both countries are self interested actors who will vote on whatever will have the most beneficial outcomes for them, whether that means voting along party lines or voting to benefit their constituents
2. Party discipline is stronger in the UK resulting in less of a need for party leaders to appeal to other MPs whereas in the US, there is no ‘national manifesto’, making it less likely for members to feel the need to toe the party line and therefore more likely to join a caucus - front benchers are bound by cabinet and ministerial responsibility so will vote to ensure they retain the loyalty of the PM
3. In the US, members represent their constituents via either the trustee or delegate model, but the UK the mandate theory also applies resulting to differences on how they vote within the legislature and how they represent their constituents
4. In both countries, political affairs have been dominated by two parties however third parties are more significant in the UK resulting in differences in representation

Question 143

Similarities and differences between the legislatures of the UK and the US using a cultural approach?

Answer 143

1. The UK has traditionally seen a greater support for women and minority rights, resulting it having greater diversity than the US
2. Parliament has anachronistic traditions such as the Kings speech and antiquated terminology - Congress also has longstanding traditions such as the sate of Union address but it has also developed its own traditions over time such as the filibuster resulting in differences in effectiveness
3. The UK, the debating floor and PMQs are staples of political theatre which dont exist in Congress resulting in differences in the effectiveness of their scrutiny