Unit 2: Cognition Flashcards
1
Q
bottom-up processing & when do we use it?
A
starts at the sensory receptors & then works up to the higher brain for processing
- we use this when we’re unfamiliar w/ a setting
2
Q
top-down processing & when do we use it?
A
constructs perceptions from the sensory input by drawing on experience & expectations
- we use this when we know what to expect from a setting
3
Q
Selective attention
A
this is when your awareness is focused on a particular detail of your experience.
- this explains why multitasking isn’t always feasible.
4
Q
Cocktail party effect
A
ability to concentrate on 1 voice amongst a crowd
5
Q
Inattentional Blindness
A
our conscious awareness only picks up a small part of the visual information around us
6
Q
Change Blindness
A
a form of inattentional blindness in which people fail to notice changes in their environment
7
Q
Perceptual Set
A
a mental predisposition that acts like a lens through which we view & interpret the world around us.
8
Q
Schemas (learned concepts)
A
help us organize & make sense of new information based on our past experiences (like a folder)
9
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
10
Q
Figure & Ground
A
the perceptual task of distinguishing an object (the figure) from its surroundings (the ground)
11
Q
Proximity
A
grouping nearby figures together
12
Q
Closure
A
filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object
12
Q
Continuity
A
perceiving smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
13
Q
What does depth perception help us with?
A
to know exactly how far away 2 items are from each other.
- likely an innate ability
14
Q
Binocular depth cues
A
clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes
15
Q
Retinal disparity
A
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the 2 eyes.
The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
16
Q
What do we depend on to judge whether a person is 10 or 100 meters away?
A
monocular cues
17
Q
Phi phenomenon
A
when we assume there’s motion when there isn’t
18
Q
Stroboscopic movement
A
the illusion of continuous movement that’s experienced when we view a series of slightly varying still images
- ex: flip book, strobe lights
19
Q
Autokinetic effect
A
when we stare at a still spot of light in a dark room & due to how our eyes naturally move, it makes the light seem like its moving
20
Q
Metacognition (meaning beyond cognition)
A
is thinking about thinking.
20
Q
Retinex theory
A
explains how our brain adjusts colors based on surrounding light, allowing us to perceive consistent colors even when lighting changes.
21
Q
Prototype
A
mental image or best example of any category
22
Q
Assimilation
A
when we take in new experiences & interpret them to our current understanding.
23
What do we call the change in understanding?
Accommodation, in which our schemas incorporate information provided by new experiences
24
What are you using when you plan & assess your understanding and performance, meaning you're evaluating & monitoring your learning?
metacognition
25
Creativity
ability to produce ideas that are both novel & valuable
26
Thinking Creatively: Convergent Thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
27
Thinking Creatively: Divergent Thinking
a way to resolve problems that involve considering multiple possible solutions.
28
Ambiguity
the quality of being open to more than 1 interpretation
29
Executive functions
the high-level cognitive abilities that collectively allow us to make decisions & solve problems effectively
30
Problem Solving: Algorithms
step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution
- pro: accurate
- con: too slow
31
Problem Solving: Heuristics
when you know something makes sense in your mind
32
Problem Solving: Insight
a sudden realization of a solution to a problem w/o using a step-by-step strategy.
33
Brain Activity in Insight (Before & At the moment)
Before Insight ("Aha!" Moment):
- Frontal lobe is active → helps focus attention on the
problem.
At the Moment of Insight:
- A burst of activity occurs in the right temporal lobe,
leading to sudden realization.
34
Things that can impact problem solving: Confirmation Bias
tendency to look for evidence that supports our ideas & ignoring contradictory data.
35
Things that can impact problem solving: Fixation
an inability to come up w/ a fresh perspective
36
Representativeness heuristic
is how we make decisions or make a judgement based on our best representation of any category.
(ex: a teacher, older person in the family)
37
Availability heuristic
is a decision based on what's mentally available.
(mentally available = info. or events that are easily accessible in our minds, things that we can easily recall or think about, esp when we're making judgements or decisions)
38
A side-effect of overconfidence is the sunk-cost fallacy. Define it.
we tend to stick to our original plan bc we invested time in the original approach even if a new approach could save time.
39
Mental set
the tendency to solve a problem the same way a previous problem was solved, especially if they're similar.
40
Measuring Retention: Retrieval
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded & stored
41
Measuring Retention: Recognition
identifying information previously learned
42
Measuring Retention: Relearning
learning something again, but more quickly
43
An information-processing model likens human memory of computer operations, so to remember our brain performs some processes. List 3.
Encoding: getting the information into the brain
Storage: Retain that information after encoding
Retrieval: Using that information at a later time by getting it out from storage
44
Richard Atikinson & Richard Shiffrin's Multi-Store Memory Model's 3 processes
1) Sensory Memory
- iconic ('eye'-conic'): a flash in our visual memory that lasts for about a tenth of a second
- echoic: brief memory for auditory inputs -- lasts for about 3 to 4 seconds
2) Working Memory
- temporarily maintained
- takes rehearsal & active maintenance
3) Long-term memory storage
- information is stored here for later retrieval
- explicit
- implicit
45
Working memory
where short-term & long-term memory work actively together
46
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating information
47
Elaborative rehearsal
a method of remembering information by linking it to meaning
48
The central executive directs components of cognitive tasks to the visuospatial sketchpad & phonological loop. Define visuospatial sketchpad.
memory that briefly holds information about where an object's appearance & location are (info. you see)
49
The central executive directs components of cognitive tasks to the visuospatial sketchpad & phonological loop. Define phonological loop.
the memory that helps hold auditory information (info. you hear)
50
Central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention & processing
51
Effortful Processing: Episodic & Semantic Memories
Episodic
memories stored as 'episodes' in your mind
- ex: a bday party, a memorable trip
Semantic
facts & general knowledge
52
Automatic Processing: Implicit Memories (Non-Declarative)
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
- located in the cerebellum & basal ganglia
53
What kind of memories is the right-frontal lobe responsible for?
visual & spatial memory
54
What kind of memories is the left-frontal lobe responsible for?
language & verbal memory
55
Memory consolidation
the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes
56
Flashbulb memory
a memory that stands out to you, that's difficult to forget due to how surprising/significant it was
57
Prospective memory
a memory that enables us to plan for the future.
58
When certain memory circuits in the brain are stimulated rapidly, they become more sensitive, making it easier for neurons to communicate. What is this process called?
the LTP (Long-term Potentiation), which is key to learning & memory.
- after LTP occurs, neurons can send signals more
efficiently, which helps with storing & recalling
info.
59
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
happens when a memory feels just out of reach, often due to stress, interference, or motivated forgetting.
60
Forgetting curve
a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time
61
Proactive interference (forward-acting)
when prior learning disrupts recall of new infomation
62
Retroactive interference (backward-acting)
when new learning disrupts recall of old information
63
Retrieval cues
stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
64
Effortful Processing Strategies: Chunking
breaking down large amounts of info. into smaller, manageable chunks
65
Effortful Processing Strategies: Mnemonic devices
techniques for using associations to memorize & retrieve info.
66
Effortful Processing Strategies: Method of Loci
a mnemonic device that relies on spatial relationships between loci to encode & later retrieve info.
67
Massed practice (cramming)
a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption
- quick learning, quick forgetting
68
Distributed Practice
- slower learning (distributed throughout the year)
- better long-term retention & recall
69
Testing effect
repeated self-testing which improves long-term retention of info.
70
Levels of processing: Structural
- encodes word's letters
- shallowest level of processing
71
Levels of processing: Phonemic
- encodes a word's sound
- shallow level of processing
72
Levels of Processing: Semantic
- encodes the meaning of the words
- deep level of processing
73
We have especially good recall for info. we can meaningfully relate to ourselves. This tendency is called the self-reference effect. In which members of a culture is it especially strong in & is an example of what kind of processing?
- in members of individualist Western cultures
- is an example of semantic or deep processing
74
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
75
Context-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
76
State-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy,) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
77
Serial Position Effect
the psychological tendency to remember the 1st & last items in a list better than those in the middle
78
Serial Position Effect: Primary Effect
enables you to remember the 1st couple of items in a list
79
Serial Position Effect: Recency effect
enables you to remember the last couple of items in a list (the things you most recently encoded)
80
Anterograde Amnesia
the inability to form new memories after a traumatic event or brain injury
- can still remember past experiences
- hippocampus damage
81
Retrograde Amnesia
the loss of memories that were formed before a traumatic event or brain injury
- often still able to form new memories
82
Infantile Amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
- often explained by the underdevelopment of the
hippocampus & other brain structures
83
Alzheimer's Disease
a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects memory, thinking & behavior
- is associated w/ the gradual deterioration of neurons,
particular in the hippocampus & cerebral cortex
84
Encoding failure
inability to recall info due to insufficient encoding for long-term storage.
85
Source amnesia (also called source misattribution)
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
86
Misinformation Effect
when exposure to misleading/incorrect info. after an event causes a person to recall the event inaccurately or remember things that didn't happen
87
Autobiographical Memories
process of remembering personal experiences or events in our own lives (combo of episodic & semantic memory)
88
Source amnesia also helps explain deja vu. What is the key to deja vu?
it seems to be familiarity with a stimulus without a clear idea of where we encountered it before.
89
Intelligence
ability to learn from experience, solve problems & use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
90
Charles Spearman's General Intelligence (g)
a core intelligence factor predicts performance across various academic areas.
91
The Cattel-Horn-Carroll Intelligence Theory was a theory formulated on general ability being based on 2 factors. Define Fluid Intelligence (Gf).
involves the use of quick & abstract reasoning for solving new problems (may decline over time)
92
The Cattel-Horn-Carroll Intelligence Theory was a theory formulated on general ability being based on 2 factors. Define Crystalized Intelligence (Gc).
our accumulated knowledge shown in vocabulary & analogy tests (can continue to grow even into old age)
93
Gambler's Fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
94
Achievement Tests
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
95
Aptitude Tests
a test designed to predict a person's future performance (aptitude is the capacity to learn)
96
Mental Age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance that's typically expected w/ children of a certain chronological age
97
IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
a person's mental age / chronological age multiplied by 100
98
Chronological age
age as measured in years from date of birth
99
Growth Mindset
belief that intelligence can grow through efforts leads to this mindset, which fosters resilience & motivation
100
Fixed Mindset
views intelligence as unchangeable
101
Flynn Effect
the finding that scores on IQ tests have increased in the past century
102
Is there bias when it comes to intelligence tests: Stereotype Threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
- affects performance on all kinds of tests
103
Is there bias when it comes to intelligence tests: inappropriately biased
a test predicts less accurately for 1 group than for another.
104
Intrapersonal
within the self
- how well you understand yourself
105
Interpersonal
with other people
- how well you understand other people
